This study examines Itō Jinsai’s 伊藤仁斎 (1627–1705) criticisms of the Great Learning (C: Daxue 大學 J: Daigaku). Three primary sources are considered: Jinsai’s Shigi sakumon 私擬策問 (Personal Essays, 1668); the Daigaku teihon 大學定本 (The Definitive Text of the Great Learning, manuscript 1685); and his essay, “Daigaku wa Kōshi no isho ni arazaru no ben” 大學非孔氏之遺書辨 (The Great Learning is not a Writing Confucius Transmitted, 1705), appended to his Gomō jigi 語孟字義. The study suggests that (...) Jinsai’s critical inclinations grew from his acceptance of Zhu Xi’s views about the value of doubt for progress in learning. The study also suggests that Jinsai’s thinking on the Great Learning had political implications derived in many respects from Jinsai’s overall approach to philosophizing via analysis of words and their meanings. (shrink)

By rethinking the meaning of a central idiom in the Great Learning, this essay intends to open up a new horizon for the hermeneutics of early Confucian thinking, which has little to do with metaphysics. Through a careful etymological study of ge wu and a dialogue between the Great Learning and Heidegger's phenomenology of human affection, I demonstrate the critical position of the human heart in early Chinese thinking. This new interpretation of early Confucian moral teachings (...) also recovers an invigorating possibility for contemporary discourse on the question of ethics. (shrink)

Abstract:The Confucian classic Great Learning (Daxue 大學) articulates in a sequence eight human aims for the good life. There have been various interpretations of the relations of these aims. This essay problematizes these interpretations and proposes a solution that the sequence of these Confucian human aims is developmentally temporal yet not stage-exclusive. I illustrate such an account by drawing on the model of Erik Erikson's developmental theory. Accordingly, while there is a temporal progression in achieving these aims, they (...) nevertheless should be pursued concurrently throughout most of a person's life. (shrink)

This essay analyzes the spiritual dimension of Zhu Xi's thought as reflected in his commentary on the four inner stages of the Great Learning (the Daxue《大學》). I begin with a presentation of the notions “spirituality,” “religion,” and “practice,” and of the interpretative methods used. I then examine the signification of Zhu Xi's Neo-Confucian numinous root as embodied in the luminous moral potentiality, investigate from this perspective each one of the four inner stages of the Great Learning, (...) and point out the main attribute of the spiritual. I conclude with a portrait of the person for whom this method of practice was intended. (shrink)

Lee Eun-Jeok, a Confucian scholar in early Chosŏn Dynasty, thought that Zhu Xi’s revision of Daehak(大學) and his “Complementary Explanations of ‘Investigation of Things’” distorted the original intentions of Daehak. He insisted that the phrase “hearing litigations[聽訟]”, which had been regarded as the forth explanatory notes by Zhu Xi, should be moved to the latter part of the first chapter of Daehak. Besides, He thought that the phrase “知止而后有定” and “物有本末” were originally the explanatory notes of “Investigation of things and (...) acquiring knowledge and moved to the first chapter by edit error in older times. By putting the phrase “hearing litigations” in the latter part of the first chapter, Lee regarded the core messages of Daehak as the ruler’s restoring of the moral nature and practising moral politics. The idea of moral politics presented by Lee excluded the subduing people with power and Lee pursued the politics of moving people’s heart. This idea of moral politics was more thorough than that of Zhu Xi. According to Lee, “Investigation of things and acquisition of knowledge” means that men/women must not be buried in social institutions and customs, instead they should find the origins and the essences in the human mind. Therefore, “Investigation of things and acquisition of knowledge” understood by Lee resulted in the restoring of moral nature, and only then the moral politics would naturally be completed. The theory of Self-cultivation of Lee seems to be very practical, in fact it had the optimistic, quiet, and intellectual characteristics. Rather than correcting concrete situations according to moral principles, he tried to identify moral principles in his mind by turning his eyes inward, and setting his mind at rest by focusing on moral principles. Besides, he was drawn to contemplation of the principles of myriad things and events through the calm mind. Finally, he presented an optimistic outlook that the moral politics would naturally be practiced by fully restoring the moral nature in one’s mind in a way of learning the principles by oneself. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:Reviewed by:Chinese Gleams of Sufī Light: Wang Tai-yü's Great Learning of the Pure and Real and Liu Chih's Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm, with a New Translation of Jāmī's Lawā'iḥ from the Persian by William C. ChittickE. N. AndersonChinese Gleams of Sufī Light: Wang Tai-yü's Great Learning of the Pure and Real and Liu Chih's Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm, with (...) a New Translation of Jāmī's Lawā'iḥ from the Persian by William C. Chittick. By Sachiko Murata, with a foreword by Tu Weiming. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000. Pp. xiv + 264.Contacts between China and the Near East are at least as old as civilization but have been relatively little studied. This has led to a lack of attention to Chinese Islam. Yet, Islam has been a profoundly influential force in China for centuries. In Chinese Gleams of Sufī Light, Sachiko Murata has stepped forward to bring a wider awareness to the interactions between Chinese Islam and native Chinese philosophic traditions. (Murata is also the author of The Tao of Islam [1992] and, with Islamicist William Chittick, The Vision of Islam [1994]). [End Page 257]The present book adds greatly to our understanding. It includes a translation of The Great Learning of the Pure and Real, by Wang Tai-yü (ca. 1590-ca. 1658) and facing-page versions of William Chittick's English translation of the fifteenth-century Gleams (Lawā'iḥ) by 'Abd al-Rahman Jāmī and Murata's English translation of Liu Chih's (ca. 1662-ca. 1730) Chinese version of the same work. (Here, incidentally, I follow the book in using the Wade-Giles system.) One can see, comparing the translations, howLiu recast Jāmī's work in Chinese philosophic language, paraphrased some difficult passages, summarized others, and added his own commentaries.Interestingly, Liu eliminated Jāmī's Persian poetry. Murata thinks this is because Liu wanted to focus on the hard ideas; I suspect that it was because Liu realized that Persian prosody and imagery were too far from Chinese poetry to please his audience.Both Wang and Liu belonged to what must have been a rather loose but some-how connected circle of Chinese Islamic scholars. Both, also, almost necessarily used language fairly widespread in Chinese philosophy. Terms such as "emptiness" and "transformation" had many Chinese resonances, some most un-Islamic (Neo Confucian and Buddhist, for instance).Neither Chittick nor Murata give any glosses for key philosophical terms in either source language. Their philosophical and religious provenance, Chinese or Muslim, is correspondingly unclear.What is clear is that Neo-Confucianism had a strong influence on these scholars. Haqiqa "reality" is often translated as li "principle." Pen-jan "root nature" is used for the Arabic compound "essence and attributes." These examples are discussed in the introduction (p. 19). "Annihilation" becomes "conquering" (pp. 148-149). This is strange, because "Annihilation" (fana') is a technical term in Sufism for the disappearance of the self in God; it is an Arabic term, and literally means something like. "passing away." It signifies the forgetting or loss of self, such that only contemplation of the Divine remains. It is as close to the Divine as humans can get since, in Islam, humans cannot be absorbed into Allah (as, in Buddhism, they can be absorbed into Nirvāṇa or the Buddha-nature). "Conquering" seems a rather strange way to express this in Chinese. Perhaps Chinese Muslim readers of the time had developed this specialized sense for it.There are, of course, debatable translations here to contend with (both from Persian and Arabic to Chinese and from Persian and Chinese into English), but it appears that real incommensurability is involved. It was very difficult to use the language of Chinese philosophy in the seventeenth century, influenced as it was by centuries of Neo-Confucian thought, to talk about a radically different religion characterized by an infinitely powerful and wise God, aware of all futures, close to the believer and yet cut off.The inevitable result is to wedge the Arabic and Persian philosophy, so heavily informed by Neoplatonic essentialism and other... (shrink)

This essay has two related contentions. First, by examining two early Qing exegetical works on the Great Learning, one by Chen Que (陳確 1604-77) and another by Li Guangdi (李光地 1642-1718), the essay reveals that Confucian hermeneutics was essentially moral philosophy. Exegesis of the classics was an occasion for speculative thinking on the normative, the axiological, and the anthropological. The embedding of moral philosophy in hermeneutics meant that it was animated by the search for and affirmation of truths, (...) rather than by the construction and application of theories of understanding. Second, it argues that Confucian engagement with the classics, as with all acts of reading, is subject to the tyranny of the hermeneutic imperative, the self-evident priciple that all thoughts involve interpretation and are relative to the contingent context of particular historical forces and factors, especially the interpreter's preunderstanding. To the extent that the acts of reading and interpreting inexorably forge a dialogical relation between the text and the reader, and since understanding is a universal element in this relation, the nature of Confucian hermeneutics may be fruitfully and comparatively pondered with reference to some contemporary theories, Gandamer's in particular. This essay contends that in the final analysis, Gadamerian hermeneutics exemplifies the Western philosophical predilection to reduce engagement with reality to the search for an analytical method/theory, whereas the Confucian counterpart is metapractical in intent and substance, broadly philosophical for its ontological confrontation with reality as an integrated whole. (shrink)

The so-called daxue zhi dao 大學之道, though a Confucian way of self-cultivation, can inspire contemporary universities through a process of creative interpretation. Having examined the ethos of modern university in its four historical stages, I come up with its last stage of reaching out in the era of globalization and dialogue among civilizations, in which we have to rethink the idea of university from the fuller development of human reason. This can be achieved only through increasingly reaching out toward many (...) others by means of mutual waitui 外推 and self-reflection, which presuppose and announce an ethics of generosity in priority over and implementable by reciprocity. Universities today should learn from classical Confucianism, and we should keep in mind their initial generous spirit as exemplified by Confucius himself. Strangification and self-reflection, being moved by original generosity and implemented by reciprocity, will eventually bring us the hope of reason. (shrink)

윤휴⋅정제두⋅이병휴⋅정약용⋅김택영 등은 『고본대학』에는 착간과 궐문이 없고 그 차서 그대로 논리적 정합성을 지니고 있음을 증명하기 위해 노력한다. 특히 격물치지에 대한 독자적 견해를 통해 격물치지전은 본래부터 없었다고 보거나 격물치지에 해당하는 부분을 제시한다. 윤휴는 격물치지란 명덕과 신민의 일을 할 때에 居敬하고 存誠하는 것으로 이해하여, 誠意∼平天下의 모든 과정에서 필요한 공부이기 때문에 따로 격물치지전이 필요 없다고 주장한다. 정제두는 격물치지란 성의∼평천하를 至善에 그치게 하는 것으로 이해하여, 경1장과 전5장 1절∼2절이 격물치지에 대해 설명한 것으로 파악한다. 이병휴는 격물치지란 사물의 至善의 소재를 궁구하여 그 곳에 마땅히 그쳐야 함을 아는 것으로 (...) 이해하여, 이에 대해서는 전3장 1절∼3절에서 설명하였기 때문에 따로 격물치지전이 필요 없다고 주장한다. 정약용은 격물치지란 성의∼평천하의 본말과 종시를 잘 헤아려서 그 선후를 명확하게 인식하는 것으로 이해하여, 경1장 2절∼7절과 전5장 1절∼2절이 격물치지와 관련된 부분이라고 주장한다. 김택영은 격물치지란 삼강령과 그 조목인 성의∼평천하의 본말과 종시의 선후를 궁구하여 아는 것으로 이해하여, 경1장 3절과 6절∼7절, 전5장 1절∼2절이 격물치지에 대해 설명한 것으로 파악한다. (shrink)

While there are a wide range of important differences in interpretation of doctrine to be seen even within any single school of East Asian philosophy, whether it be Confucian, Daoist, or Buddhist, it is on the other hand possible to identify broad patterns within East Asian philosophy in a cultural comparative context, especially when, for example, the East Asian philosophical tradition is viewed in contrast with Abrahamic theistic traditions, Platonic-influenced Western philosophy, Brahmanistic philosophy, or the worldviews of modern natural science.

최근 富나 권력을 가진 사람이 사회적 약자의 위치에 있는 사람에 대한 횡포가 계속하여 일어나면서 사회적 물의를 일으키고 있다. 심지어 봉사활동을 간 고등학생들이 병상에 누워있는 할머니에게 소리를 지르고 반말을 하는 등 정도를 넘은 ‘장난’을 저질러 온라인상에서 큰 논란이 되고 있다. 문제의 원인은 자신의 마음과 남의 마음은 근본적으로 같다는 것을 體得하지 못했기 때문이다. 본래 인간의 마음은 천부적 본성에서 곧고 바르게 발현되어 나오는 마음과 천부적 본성에서 왜곡되고 굴절되어 나오는 마음이 있다. 천부적 본성에서 곧고 바르게 발현되어 나오는 마음은 상황이 바뀌더라도 바뀌지 않는 본마음으로 맹자가 (...) 말한 四端이 여기에 해당한다. 본마음에 의해 삶을 영위하게 되면 내 마음과 남의 마음이 같다는 것을 알기 때문에 내 마음을 미루어 남의 마음을 헤아릴 수 있게 된다. 따라서 자신이 하기 싫은 일은 다른 사람도 하기 싫다는 것을 알기 때문에 그 마음을 미루어 남에게 함부로 강요하지 않게 된다. 더 나아가 자신이 하고 싶은 일은 다른 사람도 원한다는 것을 알기 때문에 상대방을 먼저 배려하게 된다. 배려를 받은 상대방은 고마운 마음을 표현하게 되고, 자신의 처지가 좋아지면 반대로 나를 도와주고 배려해 주게 된다. 하지만 천부적 본성에서 이기적 욕심이 개입되면 본마음이 왜곡되고 굴절되어 나오게 된다. 따라서 자신의 처지나 이익만 중시하고 남의 처지이나 이익은 고려하지 않게 된다. 이러한 마음이 가정으로 확대되면 부부 갈등, 배우자 폭력, 성격 차이 때문에 별거와 이혼으로 이어지고, 학교에서는 학교 폭력이나 왕따 현상으로 나타나고 있으며, 회사나 사회로 확대되면 노사 갈등과 권위적으로 군림하고 부당하게 착취하는 갑과 사회적 약자나 피해자로 보호·지원받아야 하는 대상인 을의 관계, 지역 이기주의, 자연 파괴 등으로 이어지게 된다. 이러한 문제를 해결하기 위해서는 자신의 마음을 미루어 남의 마음을 헤아릴 줄 아는 絜矩之道가 필요하다. 그런데 絜矩之道는 자기의 이익 추구에 기반을 둔 혈구지도와 순수한 본마음에 기반을 둔 혈구지도로 나눌 수 있다. 예를 들면 내가 남을 배려하는 경우, 자기에게 이익이 되기 때문에 남을 배려할 수도 있고, 원래 남과 내가 한마음이라고 여기기 때문에 배려할 수 있다. 오늘날 대부분의 윤리 실천 교육이나 예절 교육은 서구적 도덕률에 바탕을 두고 자기의 이익을 바탕으로 하는 혈구지도를 실천하고 있다. 만약 자기의 이익 때문에 남을 배려하는 것이 습관화되면 반대로 손해가 되면 그러한 마음이 나오지 않게 된다는 한계를 지니고 있다. 이러한 한계를 극복하고 오늘날의 문제를 근본적으로 해결하기 위해서는 인간의 순수한 본마음에 기반을 둔 絜矩之道의 방법으로 돌아가야 한다. (shrink)

진덕수(眞德秀)는 남송시대 주자학사에 있어서 매우 중요한 인물로 평가받는다. 따라서 그의 철학사상, 경세사상, 문학사상 등 학술적인 측면에서의 다양한 논의들이 이루어져 왔다. 본 연구는 이러한 선행적 연구 성과를 기초로 진덕수의 『대학』 이해에 관하여 총체적으로 살펴보고자 한다. ‘수기(修己)’와 ‘치인(治人)’이라는 중심 개념을 통하여 알 수 있듯이, 『대학』은 유학자의 수양서로서 혹은 제왕의 정치철학으로서 그 기능을 담당해왔다. 진덕수(眞德秀) 역시 이러한 유학의 입장에서, 『대학』을 지성인이 갖추어야 하는 수양론의 기초로 이해하고 있으며, 개인의 인격적 수양을 통한 학문과 정치의 도리를 밝히고 있다. 진덕수는 성리학의 관학화 과정에서 커다란 역할을 하였다. 남송시기, (...) 주자의 후학들은 교육과 정치라는 현실참여 방법으로 주자학을 전파하였다. 그들은 적극적으로 정치에 참여하여 사회개혁에 관한 혁혁한 치적을 올렸으며, 물러나서는 서원교육을 통하여 향촌의 교화에 힘씀으로써 현실적인 시대의 문제를 타개하여 갔다. 이는 주자 성리학의 심화이자 당면한 현실을 의식한 실용적 사고이기도 하다. 유학의 학문적 전통은 덕목을 통한 덕성(德性) 함양과 실천적인 덕행(德行) 교육이라는 측면에 있어서 현재까지도 직접적으로 우리의 학문과 교육 및 문화에 영향을 주고 있다. (shrink)

이글은 도가와 유가의 정신(精神) 관념의 변천과 특징을 들어내기 위한 마지막 작업으로 『대학』과 『중용』의 정과 신의 용법을 소개한다. 이를 위해 『노자』,『장자』, 『회남자』가 보여주는 정신의 용례를 간략하게 정리했다. 우리가 노자, 장자, 회남자라는 인물의 선후관계를 떠나 『노자』, 『장자』, 『회남자』라는 서적의 역사적 발전과정만을 기준으로 본다면, 정과 신이 차지하는 역할이 점차 높아짐을 알 수 있다. 나아가 『회남자』에 이르면 ‘정신’이라는 관념이 드디어 정립되고 있다. 이는 철학사적으로 매우 의미 있는 일이다. 무엇보다도 중요한 것은 육체에 대한 정신의 우위가 이러한 진행을 통해 안정화된다는 사실이다. 신은 정보다 존재가치가 우월해지고, 정신은 (...) 형해를 능가하는 지위를 갖게 된다. 한마디로 정신은 육체보다 앞서는 것이다. 그리고 이러한 판단은 도가철학에서 강조하는 개인, 주체, 자율성, 독립성과 어울리면서 그들의 색채를 다른 학파와 다르게 고유화한다. 공자와 맹자는 어떠했는가? 인간세계에서 그것이 유지되는 사회적 원리나 도덕적 규범을 강조하는 유가답게 그들에게는 개별화될 수 있는 정신보다는 문화적 질서를 표상하는 예(禮)가 강조된다. 『논어』에서는 정이 그저 절구질을 가리키면서 1회 출현에 그치고, 『맹자』에서는 정이 아예 나오지 않는다. 신도 개인의 정신이 아니라 초월적인 귀신을 뜻하거나(특히 공자) 신묘하거나 신비스러움을 가리킨다. 한마디로 그들에게는 정신이 없는 것이다. 그렇다면 11세기 이후 유학의 교본이 된 『대학』과 『중용』에서는 공맹을 넘어서는 용법이 있을까? 『예기』 전편에서 정은 혼을 의미한다. 그러나 『대학』의 정은 정조의 정이고, 『중용』의 정은 『예기』에서처럼 정령의 뜻이 아니라 정미의 정을 뜻한다. 반면, 『예기』 전편의 신은 귀신으로 이해될 수 있는데, 『대학』에는 신이 나오지 않지만 『중용』에서는 『예기』처럼 대체로 귀신을 가리킨다. 이와 같이 『대학』과 『중용』에서도 정신은 독자적인 지위를 갖지 못한다. (shrink)

『중용』과 『대학』 이해에 나타난 윤휴의 사천지학의 구조는 인간이 하늘을 섬겨야만 하는 근본 원리, 하늘을 섬기는 구체적 실천 방법, 하늘을 섬긴 지극한 효과로 이루어져 있다. 그는 인간의 性과 道란 天의 命으로 정해져 있기 때문에, 인간이란 性과 道의 근원인 天을 섬겨야만 하는 숙명적인 존재라고 이해한다. 즉 사천이란 다름 아닌 인간의 본원에 대한 섬김을 의미한다고 본다. 사천을 실천하는 구체적 방법으로 畏天, 存心養性, 중용과 중화의 실천, 五達道와 九經의 실천, 삼강령과 팔조목의 실천을 제시한다. 이러한 방법을 통해 사천을 지극히 하게 되면, 천지가 제자리를 잡고 만물이 길러지는 (...) 효과를 이룰 수 있다고 파악한다. 그에게 있어서 이러한 천지가 제자리를 잡고 만물이 길러진 경지란 다름 아닌 오달도와 구경이 실현된 경지이며, 자신의 性을 다하고[明明德] 남의 性을 다하게 하여[新民] 극치에 이른 경지이며[止於至善], 平天下가 이루어진 경지인 것이다. 이와 같이 윤휴가 강조한 사천지학의 지향점은 성리학의 지향점과 정확하게 일치한다고 하겠다. 그러나 그 출발점에서는 큰 차이를 보인다. 성리학에서는 天을 理로 이해하고, 이러한 天理는 性으로 내재되어 있다고 보고, 性 안에 내재된 천리를 자각하고 그 천리를 인륜에서 실현하는 것을 학문의 궁극적 목표로 삼는다. 물론 윤휴도 천리가 性으로 내재된 점을 인정하여 천명으로 받은 性을 인륜에서 실현하는 것을 학문의 궁극적 목표로 삼는다. 그러나 그 전제 조건으로 性의 근원인 天이 인륜과 日用 사이에 항상 顯現하고 있음을 인식하고 자각하여, 天을 두려워하고 경외하는 畏天의 마음을 가져야 함을 강조한다. 이러한 윤휴의 외천에 대한 강조는 성리학의 理法으로서의 天은 인간으로 하여금 자발적이고 적극적인 인륜 실천을 하도록 도모하는데 일정한 한계가 있다고 보고, 인간의 인륜 실천을 提高하기 위한 방안을 모색한 결과라 할 수 있다. (shrink)

Two great problems of learning confront humanity: learning about the universe, and learning how to live wisely. The first problem was solved with the creation of modern science, but the second problem has not been solved. This combination puts humanity into a situation of unprecedented danger. In order to solve the second problem we need to learn from our solution to the first problem. This requires that we bring about a revolution in the overall aims and (...) methods of academic inquiry, so that it takes up its proper task of promoting wisdom. (shrink)

This article feeds into the discussion of transitional issues begun in Volume 2 of Arts and Humanities in Higher Education. It draws on research into A-level students' expectations of university English and how these compare to the experiences of first-year students, university lecturers and A-level teachers. The data presented are drawn from innovative focus group sessions which gave pre-higher education and first-year university students a range of exercises to encourage them to focus on their expectations and experiences of studying English. (...) These data were supplemented with teacher and lecturer interviews. The article concentrates on students' expectations of independent study and the experience of reading. The findings show that there is a mismatch between student expectations and the realities of university study. It is hoped that the outcomes of this research will contribute to a more informed transition from school to university by informing students' expectations before they enter university. (shrink)

Twenty years ago our great teacher and leader Chairman Mao published "On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People," an epoch-making piece of Marxist literature. In this brilliant piece, Chairman Mao applied the fundamental law of the universe, the law of the unity of opposites, to sum up comprehensively the historical experience of China's socialist revolution and construction and the international Communist movement and to analyze profoundly the nature, peculiarities and laws of socialist society. He was the first (...) in the history of the development of Marxism to point out clearly that the fundamental contradictions of socialist society are still the contradiction between the productive forces and production relations and the contradiction between the superstructure and the economic base. He was the first to demonstrate clearly that even after the system of ownership of the means of production has been transformed into that of a socialist country there still exist classes, class struggle, and the danger of capitalist restoration. He was the first to indicate clearly that there exist two different kinds of contradictions in socialist society which must be rigorously distinguished and correctly handled, for which he established the great theory of continuing revolution under the dictatorship of the proletariat. On the basis of the unity of theory and practice, he resolved the issue of preventing and combating revisionism, consolidated the dictatorship of the proletariat, and stymied the threat of capitalist restoration. It was an important essay for our time concerning carrying the cause of socialist revolution through to the end, a great enrichment and development of Marxism-Leninism. To study this brilliant essay by Chairman Mao is of the greatest significance for China's current investigation and criticism of the Wang-Chang-Chiang-Yao "gang of four" anti-Party clique. (shrink)

Two great problems of learning confront humanity: learning about the nature of the universe and about ourselves and other living things as a part of the universe, and learning how to become civilized or enlightened. The first problem was solved, in essence, in the 17th century, with the creation of modern science. But the second problem has not yet been solved. Solving the first problem without also solving the second puts us in a situation of (...) class='Hi'>great danger. All our current global problems have arisen as a result. What we need to do, in response to this unprecedented crisis, is learn from our solution to the first problem how to solve the second one. This was the basic idea of the 18th century Enlightenment. Unfortunately, in carrying out this programme, the Enlightenment made three blunders, and it is this defective version of the Enlightenment programme, inherited from the past, that is still built into the institutional/intellectual structure of academic inquiry in the 21st century. In order to solve the second great problem of learning we need to correct the three blunders of the traditional Enlightenment. This involves changing the nature of social inquiry, so that social science becomes social methodology or social philosophy, concerned to help us build into social life the progress-achieving methods of aim-oriented rationality, arrived at by generalizing the progress-achieving methods of science. It also involves, more generally, bringing about a revolution in the nature of academic inquiry as a whole, so that it takes up its proper task of helping humanity learn how to become wiser by increasingly cooperatively rational means. The scientific task of improving knowledge and understanding of nature becomes a part of the broader task of improving global wisdom. The outcome would be what we so urgently need: a kind of inquiry rationally designed and devoted to helping us make progress towards a genuinely civilized world. We would succeed in doing what the Enlightenment tried but failed to do: learn from scientific progress how to go about making social progress towards as good a world as possible. (shrink)

As an aspect of civic humanism, the liberal arts comprehended the skills necessary to realize the common good of free citizens within a free society, the mental habits basic to citizenship as preached and taught in the classical, medieval, and Renaissance worlds. The liberal arts formed people with the virtues proper to civic life. The Church has never been quiet about these issues. In every age Christians have addressed themselves to what the human animal is that such a being can (...) be trained in civic virtue, and how this can best be done, why Christians should care, and what Faith has to say on such matters as profane learning. This book's essays explore how the various Christian Traditions have taken up the question of liberal learning by setting it within the context of their own peculiar idioms and histories."--from back book cover. (shrink)

To explain social learning without invoking the cognitively complex concept of imitation, many learning mechanisms have been proposed. Borrowing an idea used routinely in cognitive psychology, we argue that most of these alternatives can be subsumed under a single process, priming, in which input increases the activation of stored internal representations. Imitation itself has generally been seen as a This has diverted much research towards the all-or-none question of whether an animal can imitate, with disappointingly inconclusive results. In (...) the great apes, however, voluntary, learned behaviour is organized hierarchically. This means that imitation can occur at various levels, of which we single out two clearly distinct ones: the a rather detailed and linear specification of sequential acts, and the a broader description of subroutine structure and the hierarchical layout of a behavioural Program level imitation is a high-level, constructive mechanism, adapted for the efficient learning of complex skills and thus not evident in the simple manipulations used to test for imitation in the laboratory. As examples, we describe the food-preparation techniques of wild mountain gorillas and the imitative behaviour of orangutans undergoing to the wild. Representing and manipulating relations between objects seems to be one basic building block in their hierarchical programs. There is evidence that great apes suffer from a stricter capacity limit than humans in the hierarchical depth of planning. We re-interpret some chimpanzee behaviour previously described as and suggest that all great apes may be able to imitate at the program level. Action level imitation is seldom observed in great ape skill learning, and may have a largely social role, even in humans. (shrink)

Inoperative Learning draws upon the movement towards a weak philosophy that is currently gaining ground in educational philosophy: this weak philosophy does not offer a set of solutions or guidelines for improving educational outcomes, but rather renders assumptions about the theory-practice coupling that is so popular in contemporary education inoperative. By arguing that such logic reduces education to merely instrumental ends, which can only be assessed in terms of predefined measurement tools, this book presents a challenge to contemporary notions (...) of education as learning. There are various forms of inoperative education that temporarily suspend the goal-directedness of learning. From the perspective of learning, the neutralization of progress, growth, and maturity would usually be seen as obstacles needing to be overcome on the path toward set goals. Yet Lewis argues that a serious investigation of inoperativity opens up possibilities that would be otherwise unavailable in a world fixated on the question of learning. In dialogue with philosophers (Agamben, Benjamin, and Esposito), as well as authors (Kafka and Walser), and qualitative researchers (Lather), Lewis turns our collective attention to what remains when concepts such as learning, child development, teacher effectivity, and personal growth are left idle. Inoperative Learning presents a radical rewriting of educational possibilities. It should therefore be of great interest to educational researchers and educational philosophers concerned with the question of alternative logics of education beyond learning. The book may also be of interest to educational policy specialists who are looking for new and innovative forms of critique and analysis. (shrink)

In this new volume in the Oxford Psychology Series, the author presents a highly readable account of the cognitive unconscious, focusing in particular on the problem of implicit learning. Implicit learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge that takes place independently of the conscious attempts to learn and largely in the absence of explicit knowledge about what was acquired. One of the core assumptions of this argument is that implicit learning is a fundamental, "root" process, one (...) that lies at the very heart of the adaptive behavioral repertoire of every complex organism. The author's goals are to outline the essential features of implicit learning that have emerged from the many studies that have been carried out in a variety of experimental laboratories over the past several decades; to present the various alternative perspectives on this issue that have been proposed by other researchers and to try to accommodate these views with his own; to structure the literature so that it can be seen in the context of standard heuristics of evolutionary biology; to present the material within a functionalist approach and to try to show why the experimental data should be seen as entailing particular epistemological perspectives; and to present implicit processing as encompassing a general and ubiquitous set of operations that have wide currency and several possible applications. Chapter 1 begins with the core problem under consideration in this book, a characterization of "implicit learning" as it has come to be used in the literature. Reber puts this seemingly specialized topic into a general framework and suggests a theoretical model based on standard heuristics of evolutionary biology. In his account, Reber weaves a capsule history of interest in and work on the cognitive unconscious. Chapter 2 turns to a detailed overview of the experimental work on the acquisition of implicit knowledge, which currently is of great interest. Chapter 3 develops the evolutionary model within which one can see learning and cognition as richly intertwining issues and not as two distinct fields with one dominating the other. Finally, Chapter 4 explores a variety of entailments and speculations concerning implicit cognitive processes and their general role in the larger scope of human performance. (shrink)

Learn to face and overcome the pitfalls of Zen practice--self-indulgence, suppression, speculation, asceticism--with this first complete translation of a Zen classic. "In Zen practice, the essential point is to arouse doubt. What is this doubt? When you are born, for example, where do you come from? You cannot help but remain in doubt about this. When you die, where do you go? Again, you cannot help but remain in doubt. Since you cannot pierce this barrier of life and death, suddenly (...) doubt will coalesce right before your eyes. Try to put it down, you cannot; try to push it away, you cannot. Eventually you will break through this doubt block and realize what a worthless notion life and death is -- ha! As the old worthies said: 'Great doubt, great awakening; small doubt, small awakening; no doubt, no awakening.'"--Boshan. There are many ways in which we may delude ourselves in practice. Doubt, Boshan argues, can be a powerful tool that rouses us from the complacency that comes with intellectual musing, ascetic striving, emotional suppression and quiet meditation. Great Doubt presents for the first time complete translations of Boshan's key works on working with doubt: "Exhortations for Those Who Don't Arouse Doubt" and "Exhortations for Those Who Do Arouse Doubt." This little book contains the most powerful medicine for the diseases that plague spiritual practice. (shrink)

In this new volume in the Oxford Psychology Series, the author presents a highly readable account of the cognitive unconscious, focusing in particular on the problem of implicit learning. Implicit learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge that takes place independently of the conscious attempts to learn and largely in the absence of explicit knowledge about what was acquired. One of the core assumptions of this argument is that implicit learning is a fundamental, "root" process, one (...) that lies at the very heart of the adaptive behavioral repertoire of every complex organism. The author's goals are to outline the essential features of implicit learning that have emerged from the many studies that have been carried out in a variety of experimental laboratories over the past several decades; to present the various alternative perspectives on this issue that have been proposed by other researchers and to try to accommodate these views with his own; to structure the literature so that it can be seen in the context of standard heuristics of evolutionary biology; to present the material within a functionalist approach and to try to show why the experimental data should be seen as entailing particular epistemological perspectives; and to present implicit processing as encompassing a general and ubiquitous set of operations that have wide currency and several possible applications. Chapter 1 begins with the core problem under consideration in this book, a characterization of "implicit learning" as it has come to be used in the literature. Reber puts this seemingly specialized topic into a general framework and suggests a theoretical model based on standard heuristics of evolutionary biology. In his account, Reber weaves a capsule history of interest in and work on the cognitive unconscious. Chapter 2 turns to a detailed overview of the experimental work on the acquisition of implicit knowledge, which currently is of great interest. Chapter 3 develops the evolutionary model within which one can see learning and cognition as richly intertwining issues and not as two distinct fields with one dominating the other. Finally, Chapter 4 explores a variety of entailments and speculations concerning implicit cognitive processes and their general role in the larger scope of human performance. (shrink)

As moral philosopher Zhu Xi (1130–1200) sought to nurture the autonomous moral self. In his pedagogical scheme, one ought to cultivate the innate goodness of the heart, investigate principles in things, and embody ethical standards in daily life. In Zhu Xi’s view, the ability to exercise moral autonomy is obtained through a long period of moral and ethical training under the close surveillance of one’s immediate surroundings since early childhood. For this reason, Zhu Xi emphasized the practice of social norms (...) as well as the performance of mundane rituals as the preconditions for the development of the autonomous moral self. By combining the Lesser Learning (xiaoxue 小學) with the Great Learning (daxue 大學), Zhu Xi articulated an integrated vision of moral development from the heteronomous performing of ethical duties to the autonomous embodiment of moral principles. (shrink)

Many great cultures of the world have recognised the impossibility of teaching. Governments in various colonial countries continue to spend huge sums of money on ‘closing the gap’ in Indigenous education, yet national assessment figures would support the claim that teaching is indeed an impossibility. This paper draws on some of Biesta’s recent theorisation to highlight the double impossibility of teaching in Indigenous education. While representation and miscommunication surely make teaching an impossible profession, I nevertheless return to the question, (...) what is possible in education? I apply the more recent work of Butler to highlight how vulnerability can allow us to hear the story of others. Vulnerability allows us into the lives of others, and to recognise that they are already implicated in ours, noting that certain bonds are actually shaped through the reversibility of the story. I examine a presentation to teacher education students on the Stolen Generations as a means of understanding how the role of power in constituting body vulnerability can be leveraged in the curriculum beyond the discourse of independent and self-motivated learning. (shrink)

Get the most out of your year in Israel. The Israel experience has a natural rhythm, but it is easy to miss the big themes and even bigger opportunities if you don't have a road map. This book serves as a spiritual and intellectual guide during your year in yeshiva or seminary. Learning to Grow has very immodest ambitions: it is a guide to greatness during your year in Israel and beyond.

Decisions where there is not enough information for a well-informed decision due to unidentified consequences, options, or undetermined demarcation of the decision problem are called decisions under great uncertainty. This paper argues that public policy decisions on _how_ and _if_ to implement decision-making processes based on machine learning and AI for public use are such decisions. Decisions on public policy on AI are uncertain due to three features specific to the current landscape of AI, namely (i) the vagueness (...) of the definition of AI, (ii) uncertain outcomes of AI implementations and (iii) pacing problems. Given that many potential applications of AI in the public sector concern functions central to the public sphere, decisions on the implementation of such applications are particularly sensitive. Therefore, it is suggested that public policy-makers and decision-makers in the public sector can adopt strategies from the argumentative approach in decision theory to mitigate the established great uncertainty. In particular, the notions of framing and temporal strategies are considered. (shrink)

This paper uses an improved deep learning algorithm to judge the rationality of the design of landscape image feature recognition. The preprocessing of the image is proposed to enhance the data. The deficiencies in landscape feature extraction are further addressed based on the new model. Then, the two-stage training method of the model is used to solve the problems of long training time and convergence difficulties in deep learning. Innovative methods for zoning and segmentation training of landscape pattern (...) features are proposed, which makes model training faster and generates more creative landscape patterns. Because of the impact of too many types of landscape elements in landscape images, traditional convolutional neural networks can no longer effectively solve this problem. On this basis, a fully convolutional neural network model is designed to perform semantic segmentation of landscape elements in landscape images. Through the method of deconvolution, the pixel-level semantic segmentation is realized. Compared with the 65% accuracy rate of the convolutional neural network, the fully convolutional neural network has an accuracy rate of 90.3% for the recognition of landscape elements. The method is effective, accurate, and intelligent for the classification of landscape element design, which better improves the accuracy of classification, greatly reduces the cost of landscape element design classification, and ensures that the technical method is feasible. This paper classifies landscape behavior based on this model for full convolutional neural network landscape images and demonstrates the effectiveness of using the model. In terms of landscape image processing, the image evaluation provides a certain basis. (shrink)