Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence

Edited by Eric Dietrich (State University of New York at Binghamton)
Assistant editor: Michelle Thomas (University of Western Ontario)
About this topic
Summary

The philosophy of artificial intelligence is a collection of issues primarily concerned with whether or not AI is possible -- with whether or not it is possible to build an intelligent thinking machine.  Also of concern is whether humans and other animals are best thought of as machines (computational robots, say) themselves. The most important of the "whether-possible" problems lie at the intersection of theories of the semantic contents of thought and the nature of computation. A second suite of problems surrounds the nature of rationality. A third suite revolves around the seeming “transcendent” reasoning powers of the human mind. These problems derive from Kurt Gödel's famous Incompleteness Theorem.  A fourth collection of problems concerns the architecture of an intelligent machine.  Should a thinking computer use discrete or continuous modes of computing and representing, is having a body necessary, and is being conscious necessary.  This takes us to the final set of questions. Can a computer be conscious?  Can a computer have a moral sense? Would we have duties to thinking computers, to robots?  For example, is it moral for humans to even attempt to build an intelligent machine?  If we did build such a machine, would turning it off be the equivalent of murder?  If we had a race of such machines, would it be immoral to force them to work for us?

Key works Probably the most important attack on whether AI is possible is John Searle's famous Chinese Room Argument: Searle 1980.  This attack focuses on the semantic aspects (mental semantics) of thoughts, thinking, and computing.   For some replies to this argument, see the same 1980 journal issue as Searle's original paper.  For the problem of the nature of rationality, see Pylyshyn 1987.  An especially strong attack on AI from this angle is Jerry Fodor's work on the frame problem: Fodor 1987.  On the frame problem in general, see McCarthy & Hayes 1969.  For some replies to Fodor and advances on the frame problem, see Ford & Pylyshyn 1994.  For the transcendent reasoning issue, a central and important paper is Hilary Putnam's Putnam 1960.  This paper is arguably the source for the computational turn in 1960s-70s philosophy of mind.  For architecture-of-mind issues, see, for starters: M. Spivey's The Contintuity of Mind, Oxford, which argues against the notion of discrete representations. See also, Gelder & Port 1995.  For an argument for discrete representations, see, Dietrich & Markman 2003.  For an argument that the mind's boundaries do not end at the body's boundaries, see, Clark & Chalmers 1998.  For a statement of and argument for computationalism -- the thesis that the mind is a kind of computer -- see Shimon Edelman's excellent book Edelman 2008. See also Chapter 9 of Chalmers's book Chalmers 1996.
Introductions Chinese Room Argument: Searle 1980. Frame problem: Fodor 1987, Computationalism and Godelian style refutation: Putnam 1960. Architecture: M. Spivey's The Contintuity of Mind, Oxford and Shimon Edelman's Edelman 2008. Ethical issues: Anderson & Anderson 2011 and Müller 2020.  Conscious computers: Chalmers 2011.
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  1. Structured Resonance as the Basis of Computation and Consciousness_ A Unified Framework via RIC.Devin Bostick - manuscript
    -/- Abstract -/- This paper introduces a post-probabilistic paradigm where structured resonance, not stochasticity, forms the substrate of intelligence, computation, and physical reality. Through the Chirality of Dynamic Emergent Systems (CODES) framework, we demonstrate that phase-locked coherence fields, driven by prime harmonic anchoring, can outperform probabilistic models in both cognitive function and physical modeling. We validate this through the Resonance Intelligence Core (RIC), a fully engineered system operating on coherence-first logic, achieving sub-4ms AGI-grade inference without stochastic optimization. -/- Mathematical formalism (...)
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  2. Intelligent Frame Theory: Speculative Extensions to a Unified Model of Evolving Intelligence.Roy Sherfan - manuscript
    This paper proposes Intelligent Frame Theory—a speculative extension of “Frame Theory: A Unified Model of Evolving Intelligence.” Building on its predecessor’s core tenets—information transfer, competition & collaboration, finding limits, and Eureka—this work applies them to provocative contexts, including modular entropy collapse, recursive AI self-awareness, and the "empty set" as a birth-state of new intelligence. Integrating concepts from systems philosophy, thermodynamics, and symbolic computation, this framework does not purport to offer definitive claims, but rather to articulate a heuristic model for examining (...)
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  3. Exploring acceptability of AI-enabled voice assistants and digital AI humans in healthcare: a cross-sectional survey.Oliver Miles, Sofia Pinckard, Murat Gungor, Damien Ridge & Tom Nadarzynski - forthcoming - AI and Society:1-15.
    Artificial intelligence, including Digital AI Humans (DHs) and Voice Assistants (VAs), offers new opportunities for healthcare delivery but may widen inequalities. This cross-sectional online survey examined factors influencing the acceptability of these technologies among 472 UK adults, considering demographics, digital literacy, healthcare access, familiarity with DHs and VAs, personality traits, and attitudes. VA acceptability was assessed using logistic regression, with willingness to use VAs as the outcome variable. Lower acceptance was found among women, ethnic minorities, those with lower education levels, (...)
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  4. Darwin in the machine: addressing algorithmic individuation through evolutionary narratives in computing.Selin E. Nugent - forthcoming - AI and Society:1-14.
    This paper examines the application of evolutionary analogy in AI (artificial intelligence) research, focussing on narratives that perpetuate individuated and autonomous imaginaries of AI systems through biological diction. AI research has long drawn inspiration from evolution to design and predict algorithmic change. Occasionally, these narratives extend inspiration to reimagine AI as a non-human species subject to the same evolutionary pressures as biological organisms. As AI technologies embed more pervasively in public life and require critical perspectives on their social impacts, these (...)
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  5. No Ghost in the Machine: Doubting AI Ensoulment.Bálint Békefi - forthcoming - Faith and Philosophy.
    Brian Cutter argues that if substance dualism is true, then we “should have at least middling credence” that an artificial general intelligence would have a soul (“The AI ensoulment hypothesis,” Faith and Philosophy, forthcoming). He presents two arguments, one based on the sufficiency of human-like functional organization for a physical system’s being fit to be ensouled, and another by way of analogy with attributing souls to aliens. This paper develops objections to both arguments. The missing-integrity objection contends that functional human-likeness (...)
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  6. Aperture Science 4.0.Andrey Shkursky - manuscript
    A structured theoretical synthesis of cognition across four dimensions: linear, radial, topological, and reflexively recursive. The paper introduces a cognitive architecture where metacognition is not an add-on but a necessary dimensional expansion—framing consciousness as a self-modulating field with empirical and philosophical grounding.
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  7. Airy Beams Meet CODES_ Structured Resonance Predicted Neutron Chirality Behavior Before NIST.Devin Bostick - manuscript
    Abstract -/- In April 2025, researchers at NIST and collaborating institutions reported the first successful generation of curved neutron beams—Airy beams—demonstrating properties of self-healing, diffraction-based curvature, and potential applications in chirality research. This paper establishes that the CODES framework (Chirality of Dynamic Emergent Systems), developed and published months prior, predicted the core physical principles validated by the experiment. Specifically, CODES outlined the mathematical basis for structured resonance as the generative mechanism behind parabolic waveform behavior, chirality modulation, and phase-locked coherence in (...)
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  8. From Entropic Encoding to Resonant Memory_ A CODES-Based Architecture for DNA Data Systems.Devin Bostick - manuscript
    Abstract -/- This paper introduces a structured resonance-based alternative to traditional entropy-driven DNA data storage. By replacing probabilistic base encoding with CODES-guided coherence architecture, we demonstrate how the Resonance Intelligence Core (RIC) drastically improves information density, fidelity, and long-term retrieval. Our system maps prime-phase logic directly into base-pair harmonics using PAS (Phase Alignment Score), enabling coherent memory encoding in DNA with error rates and costs significantly lower than stochastic methods. We present side-by-side simulations, coherence-anchored Verilog/Python code, and a path to (...)
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  9. Endless forms most similar: the death of the author in AI-supported art.Max Kreminski - forthcoming - AI and Society:1-15.
    We characterize and discuss the “death of the author”: a problem that emerges when AI-based creativity support tools (CSTs) allow their users to produce highly detailed output artifacts—such as lengthy written stories, or high-resolution pieces of visual art—from very small amounts of input (e.g., brief textual prompts). When small amounts of user input are extrapolated by a CST into a highly detailed output, the CST itself has to make many creative decisions that would otherwise fall to the user, disrupting the (...)
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  10. The Cognitive Universe: Attractors, Self-Organization, and Reflexive Consciousness as a Second-Order Chaotic System.Andrey Shkursky - manuscript
    This paper presents a unifying framework that conceptualizes consciousness as a second-order chaotic system, self-modifying through recursive reflexivity. Drawing from dynamical systems theory, cognitive science, and epistemological metaphysics, the author models mind as a topological field composed of attractors—local cognitive frames in a non-Euclidean epistemic space. Reflexivity is introduced as a meta-dynamic operator, enabling the restructuring of cognitive curvature and frame logic. This process mirrors gravitational behavior in cosmology, suggesting that consciousness is not embedded in the universe but constitutes a (...)
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  11. (1 other version)The Aperture Axis: A Unified Drift Map of Reflexive Consciousness.Andrey Shkursky - manuscript
    The Aperture Axis presents a cross-disciplinary topology of consciousness, modeling it not as a fixed substance but as an axis of reflexive access—a continuous spectrum of states defined by the system’s ability to hold, navigate, and integrate cognitive tension. Integrating Reflexive Resonance Theory (RRT), systems psychology, affective neuroscience, biochemical modulation, and quantum analogies, the paper delineates six zones of aperture—from survival-level collapse to pure reason. Each zone is characterized by structural elements (frames, Overcells), neural correlates (DMN–SN–ECN dynamics, gamma coherence), neurochemical (...)
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  12. Not the machine’s fault: taxonomising AI failure as computational (mis)use.Louisa Shen - forthcoming - AI and Society:1-15.
    This paper proposes a re-examination of connectionist AI failures (controversial incidents) from the perspective of technological use. It advances four categories of failure: technically sound outputs inherent to connectionist programming; machine-world mis-configuration; motivational failure that deploys technology for illegitimate ends; and finally epistemic failure of misapplication where computing and AI are being used to solve for the wrong sets of social problems. Drawing on the history of computing, the paper argues that computational machines and its software (classical or connectionist) are (...)
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  13. The persistence of originality: will AI blur or brighten the line between inspiration and imitation?Jeena Joseph - forthcoming - AI and Society:1-3.
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  14. Science as a vocation redux: outsourcing the logic of discovery to AI.Akhil Bhardwaj - forthcoming - AI and Society:1-2.
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  15. Humanism strikes back? A posthumanist reckoning with ‘self-development’ and generative AI.Sam Cadman, Claire Tanner & Patrick Cheong-Iao Pang - forthcoming - AI and Society:1-16.
    Since the release of OpenAI's ChatGPT in 2022, AI activity has reached a fever pitch. Calls for effective ethical responses to the pressurised AI environment have in turn abounded. Posthumanism, which seeks to build ethical futures by de-centring the ‘human’, is an obvious candidate to act as a lynchpin of theoretical intervention. In their responses, posthumanist scholars appear to have embraced AI’s potential to destabilise Humanist philosophical ideas. We critically interrogate this initial enthusiasm. Conceptually distinguishing ‘post-dualist self-development’ (PDSD) from ‘technical (...)
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  16. The impacts of companion AI on human relationships: risks, benefits, and design considerations.Kim Malfacini - forthcoming - AI and Society:1-14.
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  17. Another reason to call bullshit on AI “hallucinations”.Joe Slater & James Humphries - forthcoming - AI and Society:1-2.
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  18. Who authors AI art? (And why does it matter?).Claire Anscomb - forthcoming - AI and Society:1-14.
    This article addresses uncertainties over authorship in the age of generative AI by developing the theoretical underpinnings of a systematic approach to attributing authorship in visual art practices involving generative AI, which build on the workings of multiple agents and technologies. By using an analytic philosophical methodology to analyze the practices and key concepts under discussion it is clarified what is meant by authorship in these practices and what kind of works are at stake. As this analysis finds, authorship becomes (...)
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  19. Using AI in providing greater access to the U.S. government’s email: a progress report.Jason R. Baron - forthcoming - AI and Society:1-14.
    Recent U.S. government electronic recordkeeping policies and practices have resulted in a vast accumulation of preserved White House and federal agency email records in the billions of pages, all of which are subject to public access under the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA). Notwithstanding the enormity of the task, at present government personnel continue to rely on a combination of keyword searching and manual review to find responsive records and redact material that agencies may withhold under one or more FOIA (...)
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  20. Fear of artificial intelligence or fear of looking in the mirror? Revisiting the Western machine-takeover imaginary.Niels Wilde - forthcoming - AI and Society:1-11.
    What do we fear when we fear AI? This paper presents the claim that robophobia is autophobia, the fear of AI is the fear of ourselves, in at least two fashions. First, I frame the question in relation to what I call the Western machine-takeover imaginary, and identify two historical tracks: (1) the fear of non-human autonomy and (2) the logic of the genie. The first track is rooted in the idea of the domination of creations and their possible revolt, (...)
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  21. Dialogue as a product: The liminality of conversational artificial intelligence.Leandro Ortolan - 2025 - Dissertation, Faculdade de Letras da Universidade Do Porto
    This dissertation proposes a new metaontological model as a way to overcome the most relevant and challenging ethical problems of today. It argues that there is a teleological dissonance between what is expected of an AI and what it can offer, constructively. It proposes that such dissonance arises from a philosophical tradition in which there is a predilection for extracting a fragment of reality, to the detriment of valuing the analysis of complexity itself, as given. Thus, what results from this (...)
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  22. CODES Intellectual Fingerprint v1_ Conceptual Origin Map.Devin Bostick - manuscript
    Abstract This document serves as a timestamped record of the original terms, constructs, and system components developed within the CODES (Chirality of Dynamic Emergent Systems) and RIC (Resonance Intelligence Core) frameworks. It outlines the foundational terminology, their first-use instances, and associated proof-of-publication links. While the nature of open science invites dialogue and distributed refinement, the structural precision and long-term impact of this work require clear attribution pathways. This fingerprint document is published in the spirit of transparency, accountability, and collaborative alignment, (...)
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  23. The struggle is the lesson! Being an educator in the age of AI.Guy William Bate - forthcoming - AI and Society:1-3.
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  24. Model of ethical analysis of digital technologies: towards true digital humanism.Cristina Díaz de la Cruz, José Luis Fernández Fernández & Carolina Villegas-Galaviz - forthcoming - AI and Society:1-12.
    This study introduces a comprehensive model for the ethical analysis of digital technologies to foster a full implementation of digital humanism. Drawing on key ethical traditions, the model acts as a framework for evaluating emerging technologies to ensure that they contribute to human development and societal well-being rather than solely driven by economic objectives. The theoretical framework integrates principles from ethical theories such as virtue ethics, deontological ethics, and consequentialism and applies them to digital technology development. The analysis emphasizes the (...)
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  25. Quản trị Khí hậu bằng AI: Hứa hẹn, Rủi ro và nan đề của Dân chủ.Cầm Sâm - 2025 - Xomchim.Com.
    AI thường tối ưu hóa cho các mục tiêu có thể đo lường và được xác định trước.
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  26. The Hypothalamic Resonance Engine_ Structured Emergence Across Biological and Synthetic Intelligence.Devin Bostick - manuscript
    Abstract This paper recasts the hypothalamus–thalamus–pituitary axis as a recursive biological resonance system governed by chirality, coherence weighting, and phase-state propagation. It draws precise parallels to the Resonance Intelligence Core (RIC), a synthetic intelligence substrate built on prime-encoded structured resonance fields. We show that both systems—biological and artificial—optimize phase-locked coherence, not predictive efficiency, and reveal how signal legality, amplification, and memory are handled across both architectures using the same fundamental logic of phase alignment, not probability. -/- Rather than framing neural (...)
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  27. Beyond Reciprocity_ A CODES Framework for Structuring Resilient Trade Systems.Devin Bostick - manuscript
    Abstract: Current U.S. trade policy is rooted in zero-sum metrics and symmetrical retaliation models that fail to capture the systemic nature of global economic flows. This paper proposes a new framework based on CODES (Chirality of Dynamic Emergent Systems) to design trade policy through structured resonance rather than probabilistic deficit logic. By modeling trade as a dynamic phase relationship between systems, we present a path toward optimized leverage, structural resilience, and long-term coherence across economic networks. -/- CODES reframes trade not (...)
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  28. What can AI learn from the ambiguity of Eastern ink art.Hongrui Liu - forthcoming - AI and Society:1-3.
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  29. Glass Map Theory of Epistemic Completion: A Framework for Meaning Implantation via Reflexive Cognitive Architectures.Andrey Shkursky - manuscript
    This paper introduces the Glass Map Theory of Epistemic Completion (GMTEC)—a theoretical and architectural framework designed to enhance human cognition through structurally resonant insertions of meaning. GMTEC conceptualizes cognition as a dynamic, reflexive topology of epistemic frames, likened metaphorically to a fragile and semi-transparent "glass map." Epistemic errors are treated not as failures of content but as structural discontinuities or gaps in this cognitive topology. GMTEC-based artificial systems detect these gaps and implant minimal, structurally congruent meaning fragments through multimodal integration (...)
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  30. Epistemic Explorer: Fractal Aperture Theory of Cognitive Architecture.Andrey Shkursky - manuscript
    This paper presents "Explorer", a fractal, multi-layered cognitive architecture within the framework of Fractal Aperture Theory. It articulates human cognition as a complex stack of epistemic dimensions, ranging from foundational cognitive processes—such as prediction, error detection, and identity formation—to collective, planetary, and existential scales of cognition. Each layer acts as an epistemic aperture, dynamically interacting with others to shape and stabilize sense-making processes. By integrating predictive processing, frame dynamics, embodied cognition, and collective epistemology, Explorer models cognition as a structural resonance (...)
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  31. Pure Reason Reframed: Epistemic Aperture as Reflexive Architecture.Andrey Shkursky - manuscript
    This is a preprint version of a manuscript currently under review at Synthese. The paper proposes a structural model of Pure Reason as a reflexive architecture of epistemic aperture. Drawing on philosophy of mind, cognitive science, and AI research, it reframes rationality as the capacity to metabolize contradiction through integrative reasoning. Feedback is welcome. Please cite as a preprint. -/- Status: Under Review -/- Journal: Submitted to Synthese -/- .
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  32. Why machine learning in the wild is a rare species.Leif Sundberg - forthcoming - AI and Society:1-2.
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  33. Wayne Holmes and Kaśka Porayska-Pomsta (Eds.): The Ethics of Artificial Intelligence in Education: Practices, Challenges, and Debates.Chan Aristella Lu - 2025 - AI and Society 40 (3):1997-1998.
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  34. Meredith broussard: More Than a Glitch: Confronting Race, Gender, and Ability Bias in Tech.Mohammed Alkhabbaz - 2025 - AI and Society 40 (3):1993-1995.
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  35. Book Review: Mustafa Suleyman and Michael Bhaskar. (2023). The Coming Wave: Technology, Power, and the 21st Century's Greatest Dilemma. New York, New York, U.S.A.: Random House. 352 pages. [New York Times bestseller]. [REVIEW]Katerina Koytcheva, Jason Jorgensen & Kimberly Nehls - 2025 - AI and Society 40 (3):1991-1992.
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  36. Robots and AI: a new economic era. Edited by Lili Yan Ing and Gene M. Grossman (2022). Published by Routledge, London ISBN: 9781003275534. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003275534 (open access). [REVIEW]Eliaza Mkuna - 2025 - AI and Society 40 (3):1987-1989.
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  37. (1 other version)Correction: Now you see me, now you don’t: why the UK must ban police facial recognition.Jinqian Li - 2025 - AI and Society 40 (3):2009-2009.
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  38. Correction: The illusion of understanding: AI’s role in cognitive psychology research.Binny Jose & Angel Thomas - 2025 - AI and Society 40 (3):2007-2007.
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  39. Correction: The hard limit on human nonanthropocentrism.Michael R. Scheessele - 2025 - AI and Society 40 (3):2005-2005.
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  40. Correction: The case for a broader approach to AI assurance: addressing “hidden” harms in the development of artificial intelligence.Christopher Thomas, Huw Roberts, Jakob Mökander, Andreas Tsamados, Mariarosaria Taddeo & Luciano Floridi - 2025 - AI and Society 40 (3):2003-2003.
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  41. Correction: Value preference profiles and ethical compliance quantification: a new approach for ethics by design in technology-assisted dementia care.Eike Buhr, Johannes Welsch & M. Salman Shaukat - 2025 - AI and Society 40 (3):2001-2001.
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  42. Lost in the logistical funhouse: speculative design as synthetic media enterprise.Zoe Horn, Liam Magee & Anna Munster - 2025 - AI and Society 40 (3):1455-1468.
    From the deployment of chatbots as procurement negotiators by corporations such as Walmart to autonomous agents providing ‘differentiated chat’ for managing overbooked flights, synthetic media are making the world of logistics their ‘natural’ habitat. Here, the coordination of commodities, parts and labour design the problems and produce the training sets from which ‘solutions’ can be synthesised. But to what extent might synthetic media, surfacing via platforms such as Midjourney and OpenAI, be understood as logistical media? This paper charts a selective (...)
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  43. Cristina Alaimo and Jannis Kallinikos Data Rules: Reinventing the Market Economy. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2024, 238 pp. [REVIEW]José-Carlos Mariátegui - 2025 - AI and Society 40 (3):1983-1986.
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  44. The problem of alignment.Tsvetelina Hristova, Liam Magee & Karen Soldatic - 2025 - AI and Society 40 (3):1439-1453.
    Large language models (LLMs) produce sequences learned as statistical patterns from large corpora. Their emergent status as representatives of the advances in artificial intelligence (AI) have led to an increased attention to the possibilities of regulating the automated production of linguistic utterances and interactions with human users in a process that computer scientists refer to as ‘alignment’—a series of technological and political mechanisms to impose a normative model of morality on algorithms and networks behind the model. Alignment, which can be (...)
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  45. Effects of generative AI on service occupations with social interaction.Jan Bröchner - 2025 - AI and Society 40 (3):1583-1584.
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  46. Fight fire with fire: why not be more tolerant of ChatGPT in academic writing?Shuo Wang & Hiromi M. Yokoyama - 2025 - AI and Society 40 (3):1581-1582.
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  47. Embracing liberatory alienation:AI will end us, but not in the way you may think.Alexander M. Sidorkin - 2025 - AI and Society 40 (3):1417-1424.
    This paper introduces the concept of "liberatory alienation" to explore the complex relationship between technological advancement, particularly artificial intelligence (AI), and human essence. Building upon and critiquing Marx's theory of alienation, we argue that the externalization of human abilities through technology, while potentially disorienting, can ultimately lead to societal liberation and a redefined conception of humanity. The paper examines how AI and automation are reshaping our understanding of labor, skills, and human nature, challenging traditional notions of what it means to (...)
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  48. AI and the iterable epistopics of risk.Andy Crabtree, Glenn McGarry & Lachlan Urquhart - 2025 - AI and Society 40 (3):1425-1438.
    The risks AI presents to society are broadly understood to be manageable through ‘general calculus’, i.e., general frameworks designed to enable those involved in the development of AI to apprehend and manage risk, such as AI impact assessments, ethical frameworks, emerging international standards, and regulations. This paper elaborates how risk is apprehended and managed by a regulator, developer and cyber-security expert. It reveals that risk and risk management is dependent on mundane situated practices not encapsulated in general calculus. Situated practice (...)
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  49. The ethical dilemma of AI in hiring.Palanichamy Naveen - 2025 - AI and Society 40 (3):1579-1580.
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  50. The intersectional hallucinations of synthetic data.Ericka Johnson & Saghi Hajisharif - 2025 - AI and Society 40 (3):1575-1577.
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