Quantum Mechanics

Edited by Michael Cuffaro (LMU Munich)
Assistant editor: Radin Dardashti (LMU Munich, University of Wuppertal)
About this topic
Summary Issues in the philosophy of quantum mechanics include first and foremost, its interpretation. Probably the most well-known of these is the 'orthodox' Copenhagen interpretation associated with Neils Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, John von Neumann, and others. Beginning roughly at the midway point of the previous century, philosophers' attention began to be drawn towards alternative interpretations of the theory, including Bohmian mechanics, the relative state formulation of quantum mechanics and its variants (i.e., DeWit's "many worlds" variant, Albert and Loewer's "many minds" variant, etc.), and the dynamical collapse family of theories. One particular interpretational issue that has attracted very much attention since the seminal work of John Bell, is the issue of the extent to which quantum mechanical systems do or do not admit of a local realistic description. Bell's investigation of the properties of entangled quantum systems, inspired by the famous thought experiment of Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen, seems to lead one to the conclusion that the only realistic "hidden variables" interpretation compatible with the quantum mechanical formalism is a nonlocal one. In recent years, some of the attention has focused on applications of quantum mechanics and their potential for illuminating quantum foundations. These include the sciences of quantum information and quantum computation. Additional areas of research include philosophical investigation into the extensions of nonrelativistic quantum mechanics (such as quantum electrodynamics and quantum field theory more generally), as well as more formal logico-mathematical investigations into the structure of quantum states, state spaces, and their dynamics.
Key works Bohr 1928 and Heisenberg 1930 expound upon what has since become known as the 'Copenhagen interpretation' of quantum mechanics. The famous 'EPR' thought experiment of Einstein et al 1935 aims to show that quantum mechanics is an incomplete theory which should be supplemented by additional ('hidden') parameters. Bohr 1935 replies. More on Bohr's views can be found in Faye 1991, Folse 1985. Inspired by the EPR thought experiment, Bell 2004 proves what has since become known as "Bell's theorem." This, and a related result due to Kochen & Specker 1967 serve to revive the discussion of hidden variables and alternative interpretations of quantum mechanics. Jarrett 1984 analyses the key "factorisability" assumption Bell uses to derive his theorem into two distinct sub-assumptions, which Jarrett refers to as "locality" and "completeness". Two important volumes dedicated to the topics of entanglement and nonlocality are Cushing & McMullin 1989 and Maudlin 2002. Among the more discussed alternative interpretations of quantum mechanics are: Bohmian mechanics (Bohm 1952, and see also Cushing et al 1996), and Everett's relative state formulation (Everett Iii 1973). The latter gives rise to many variants, including the many worlds, many minds, and decoherence-based approaches (see Saunders et al 2010). Other notable interpretations and alternative theories include dynamical collapse theories (Ghirardi et al 1986), as well as the Copenhagen-inspired QBist view (Fuchs 2003, Fuchs 2010). An attempt to axiomatize quantum mechanics in terms of information theoretic constraints, and a discussion of the relevance of this for the interpretation of quantum mechanics is given in Clifton et al 2002. Discussion of this and other issues in quantum information theory can be found in: Timpson 2004. Key works in the philosophy of quantum field theory include: Redhead 1995, Redhead 1994, Ruetsche 2011, Teller 1995.
Introductions Hughes 1989 is an excellent introduction to the formalism and interpretation of quantum mechanics. Albert 1992 is another, which focuses particularly on the problem of measurement in quantum mechanics.
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  1. Airy Beams Meet CODES_ Structured Resonance Predicted Neutron Chirality Behavior Before NIST.Devin Bostick - manuscript
    Abstract -/- In April 2025, researchers at NIST and collaborating institutions reported the first successful generation of curved neutron beams—Airy beams—demonstrating properties of self-healing, diffraction-based curvature, and potential applications in chirality research. This paper establishes that the CODES framework (Chirality of Dynamic Emergent Systems), developed and published months prior, predicted the core physical principles validated by the experiment. Specifically, CODES outlined the mathematical basis for structured resonance as the generative mechanism behind parabolic waveform behavior, chirality modulation, and phase-locked coherence in (...)
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  2. On the Meaning of Quantum Mechanics.Graeme Donald Robertson - manuscript
    Quantum mechanics is one of the most successful theories in modern physics and provides a mathematical framework that enables precise predictions about microscopic systems. However, its interpretation remains a subject of deep philosophical inquiry because concepts like superposition and entanglement, which are necessary to account for established experimental results, do not sit well with our intuitive notions of metaphysics – of ontology, epistemology and logic. We employ notions from Kantian philosophy to provide a more general framework than usual for quantum (...)
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  3. (2 other versions)White Metaphor: The Philosophical Boundaries of Science 2.0.V. A. Heiskanen - manuscript
    This (revised) paper is a sequel to an earlier introductory article on the international order of boundaries, the conceptual equivalence of physics and law, and the philosophical presuppositions (metaphysics, common sense) underlying the international order and modern philosophy more broadly. The paper develops a philosophical approach that does not engage with any such presuppositions, building instead on (historically) recent developments in cosmology and quantum mechanics. Further to a conceptual analysis of the mechanics of information, energy and entropy, it outlines the (...)
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  4. Toward a Unified Framework of Coherence in Physics_ A Comparative Analysis of Structural Fidelity Across Competing Theories.Devin Bostick - manuscript
    Abstract This paper introduces a coherence-based framework for evaluating the internal consistency, cross-domain applicability, and emergence logic of competing physics theories. Rather than comparing models by their predictive artifacts (particles, fields, or metrics), we assess them by structural fidelity: their capacity to sustain recursive coherence under entropy, chirality, and observer-embedded constraints. We apply this filter to canonical frameworks (General Relativity, Quantum Mechanics, String Theory), alternative models (Loop Quantum Gravity, Bohmian Mechanics, Emergent Gravity), and high-coherence systems-level paradigms. The results reveal that (...)
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  5. A|Ω⟩: A Mathematically Rigorous Solution to the "Hard Problem of Consciousness".Alexander Yiannopoulos - manuscript
    We present a mathematically rigorous extension to quantum mechanics that accounts for consciousness while resolving longstanding paradoxes in physics. Through formal set-theoretic, group-theoretic, and category-theoretic arguments, we first demonstrate the logical impossibility of emergentism—the view that consciousness arises from complex physical processes. We then introduce a minimal dual-phase space framework in which physical states exist in a Hilbert space HΨ and phenomenal states in an orthogonal Hilbert space HΦ , connected by the awareness operator A and volition operator V. These (...)
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  6. (1 other version)Other worlds.P. C. W. Davies - 1980 - London: J. M. Dent.
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  7. Metaphysical Naturalism.Ilexa Yardley - 2025 - Dallas, TX: Intelligent Design Center, Inc..
    A circle joining and separating any X and Y explains (and controls) everything. Autonomous Intentional Masking (AIM) is the SUPRA-CONSCIOUS PROCESSOR (the super-chip) that controls the circular-linear relationship between mind and matter (nuclear energy) (abstract and concrete reality) (the Metaverse called Mind) (the Singularity called Nature). Giving humans (who understand it) a competitive advantage in all situations (virtual anticipation) (intelligent decisioning).
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  8. Philosophical Issues raised by Quantum Theory and its Interpretations.Wayne Myrvold - 2022 - In Olival Freire, Oxford Handbook on the History of Interpretations of Quantum Mechanics.
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  9. Subjectivists about Probability Should be Realists about Quantum States.Wayne Myrvold - 2020 - In Meir Hemmo & Orly Shenker, Quantum, Probability, Logic: Itamar Pitowsky’s Work and Influence. Springer. pp. 449-465.
    There is a significant body of literature, which includes Itamar Pitowksy’s “Betting on the outcomes of measurements,” that sheds light on the structure of quantum mechanics, and the ways in which it differs from classical mechanics, by casting the theory in terms of agents’ bets on the outcomes of experiments. Though this approach, by itself, is neutral as to the ontological status of quantum observables and quantum states, some, notably those who adopt the label “QBism” for their views, take this (...)
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  10. Why Do We Want a Theory of Quantum Gravity?Karen Crowther - 2025 - Cambridge University Press.
    The search for a new scientific theory is typically prompted by an encounter with something in the world that cannot be explained by current theories. This is not the case for the search for a theory of quantum gravity, which has been primarily motivated by theoretical and philosophical concerns. This Element introduces some of the motivations for seeking a theory of quantum gravity, with the aim of instigating a more critical perspective on how they are used in defining and constraining (...)
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  11. On the Motivations for Seeking a Theory of Quantum Gravity.Karen Crowther - 2025 - Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2948 (012002).
    While there are some empirical problems that could suggest the need for a theory of quantum gravity, most of these are not standardly taken as motivations for seeking a new theory. Rather, the quest for a theory of quantum gravity has been primarily motivated, guided, and constrained by philosophical and theoretical concerns. A critical examination of these can help us better understand what the theory is supposed to achieve—and, further, what it should be expected to achieve. On the other hand, (...)
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  12. Kirjandus kvantteooria mõjuväljas.Taavi Remmel - 2023 - Tallinn: Tallinna Ülikool.
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  13. THE PHILOSOPHY OF SUPERDETERMINISM ON OBJECTIONS TO SUPERDETERMINISM.John Bannan - manuscript
    The philosophy of superdeterminism is based on a single scientific fact about the universe, namely that cause and effect in physics are not real. In 2020, accomplished Swedish theoretical physicist, Dr. Johan Hansson published a physics proof using Albert Einstein’s Theory of Special Relativity that our universe is superdeterministic meaning a predetermined static block universe without cause and effect in physics. There are various grounds for objecting to Dr. Hansson’s version of superdeterminism, but none hold any water. The most common (...)
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  14. The Supra Conscious Processing Unit.Ilexa Yardley - 2024 - Https://Medium.Com/the-Circular-Theory/.
    An Always-Off-Grid Universal Processing Unit: The Supra Conductor and The Supra Conductress. Rethinking (what humans call) epistemology and ontology (metaphysics). Physical, philosophical, and psychological fusion. SupraConscious (Always-Off-Grid) Processing. Lead in to Global Projects to Monetize Metaphysical Naturalism. Educational Reset Project for humans who are in emotional pain (because they don't yet understand how Nature works). Substituting Universal Monetizational Gameplaying for Selling Drugs and Creating Addicts in Order to Support a Family (having to deal with the After-Effects of Sex Without a (...)
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  15. Rethinking the Atom.Ilexa Yardley - 2024 - Https://Medium.Com/the-Circular-Theory/.
    If the model is wrong, the thinking is wrong, and, always, vice versa.
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  16. Lunch-to-Dinner in Quantum Mechanics and Relativity.Paul Merriam & M. A. Z. Habeeb - manuscript
    Dinner today is 6 hours after lunch today. Also, these are in our future, then in our present (consecutively), and then in our past (consecutively). How do both quantum mechanics and relativity account for these?
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  17. The Circular Theory (2024).Ilexa Yardley - 2024 - Https://Medium.Com/the-Circular-Theory/.
    Conservation of the Circle is the only dynamic in Nature. Yin and Yang (ancient) is Zero and One (modern). Circumference and Diameter of an Always-Present (Technically Prescient) Circle.
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  18. European technological protectionism and the risk of moral isolationism: The case of quantum technology development.Clare Shelley-Egan & Pieter Vermaas - 2024 - Journal of Responsible Technology 18 (C):100084.
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  19. (1 other version)Do we really understand quantum mechanics?Franck Laloë - 2019 - New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
    Quantum mechanics is a fantastically successful theory that has impacted on many areas of physics, from pure theory to applications. However, it is difficult to interpret, and philosophical contradictions and counter-intuitive results are apparent at a fundamental level. In this book, Laloë presents our current understanding of the theory.
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  20. Scientific realism without the wave function.Valia Allori - 2020 - In Juha Saatsi & Steven French, Scientific Realism and the Quantum. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
    Scientific realism is the view that our best scientific theories can be regarded as (approximately) true. This is connected with the view that science, physics in particular, and metaphysics could (and should) inform one another: on the one hand, science tells us what the world is like, and on the other hand, metaphysical principles allow us to select between the various possible theories which are underdetermined by the data. Nonetheless, quantum mechanics has always been regarded as, at best, puzzling, if (...)
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  21. Can the Future Influence the Past? A Philosophical Analysis of Retrocausality.Yi Jiang - 2023 - Journal of Human Cognition 7 (2):30-38.
    Huw Price and Ken Wharton claimed recently in their paper published in The Conversation that quantum mechanics shows that the future can influence the past. According to their paper, many scientists are convinced about it. However, there is still something mystical for philosophers. The first is about the definition of retrocausality and its philosophical relation to causality. Second, it is concerned with understanding the relationship between cause and effect, not only scientifically but also logically. In this talk, I will answer (...)
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  22. Is quantum mechanics real or complex?Shu-Di Yang - manuscript
    It has been long debated whether quantum mechanics is real or complex. Local experiments have been carried out confirming the complex nature of quantum mechanics in the standard formalism. Nevertheless, recent theoretical work demonstrated that in a closed universe, quantum mechanics is real. We discuss the philosophical implications of whether quantum mechanics is real or complex.
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  23. (2 other versions)Quantum reality: theory and philosophy.Jonathan Allday - 2022 - Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
    As probably the most successful scientific theory ever created, quantum theory has profoundly changed our view of the world and extended the limits of our knowledge. It has impacted on the theoretical interpretation of a tremendous range of phenomena and the practical development of a host of new technologies. Yet for all its success, aspects of quantum theory remain baffling. Quantum Reality: Theory and Philosophy, Second Edition cuts through much of the confusion to provide readers with an exploration of quantum (...)
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  24. Typical Quantum States of the Universe are Observationally Indistinguishable.Eddy Keming Chen & Roderich Tumulka - 2024
    This paper is about the epistemology of quantum theory. We establish a new result about a limitation to knowledge of its central object---the quantum state of the universe. We show that, if the universal quantum state can be assumed to be a typical unit vector from a high-dimensional subspace of Hilbert space (such as the subspace defined by a low-entropy macro-state as prescribed by the Past Hypothesis), then no observation can determine (or even just narrow down significantly) which vector it (...)
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  25. Ultimate-Humeanism.Samuel John Andrews - 2024 - Inquiry: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy.
    Super-Humeans argue that the most parsimonious ontology of the natural world compatible with our best physical theories consists exclusively of particles and the distance relations between them. This paper argues by contrast that Super-Humean reduction goes insufficiently far, by showing there to be a more parsimonious ontology compatible with physics: Ultimate-Humeanism. This novel view posits an ontology consisting solely of the particles and distance relations required for the existence of a single brain. Super-Humeans impose conditions on what counts as an (...)
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  26. What is time? A glimpse of its Beginning during the Eclipse!John E. Blaszynski - forthcoming - Galilean Electrodynamics.
    Within we prove Time is the potential of omnipotence. It also demonstrates that when we try to control it from a philosophical point of view it obscures us from Serendipity and access to the splendor of the perfect balance between Freewill and the Will of THE Universe as constrained by the Laws of the Universe. It creates Math or the language of the Creator. It is in fact Time that makes everything from nothing while the net sum of time remains (...)
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  27. If the Sun Suddenly Went Out in the Presentist Fragmentalist Interpretation of QM.Paul Merriam & M. A. Z. Habeeb - manuscript
    If the sun were to suddenly go out we wouldn't know it for 8 minutes. But if Alice is sitting in the middle of the sun and measures one of a pair of entangled particles and we measure the other one, what direction she measures her particle in has instantaneous effects on the one we measure. This is resolved in the Presentist Fragmentalist interpretation of QM.
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  28. Quantum Mind II: Consciousness, Quantum Physics and the Brain.Stuart Roy Hameroff (ed.) - 2003 - Tucson, Arizona: The Center for Consciousness Studies - University of Arizona.
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  29. (1 other version)Hidden Variables and Bell’s Theorem: Local or Not?Valia Allori - 2024 - Theoria. An International Journal for Theory, History and Foundations of Science.
    Bell’s inequality is an empirical constrain on theories with hidden variables, which EPR argued are needed to explain observed perfect correlations if keeping locality. One way to deal with the empirical violation of Bell’s inequality is by openly embracing nonlocality, in a theory like the pilot-wave theory. Nonetheless, recent proposals have revived the possibility that one can avoid nonlocality by resorting to superdeterministic theories. These are local hidden variables theories which violate statistical independence which is one assumption of Bell’s inequality. (...)
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  30. Algebraic Structures Formalizing the Logic of Quantum Mechanics Incorporating Time Dimension.Ivan Chajda & Helmut Länger - forthcoming - Studia Logica:1-19.
    As Classical Propositional Logic finds its algebraic counterpart in Boolean algebras, the logic of Quantum Mechanics, as outlined within G. Birkhoff and J. von Neumann’s approach to Quantum Theory (Birkhoff and von Neumann in Ann Math 37:823–843, 1936) [see also (Husimi in I Proc Phys-Math Soc Japan 19:766–789, 1937)] finds its algebraic alter ego in orthomodular lattices. However, this logic does not incorporate time dimension although it is apparent that the propositions occurring in the logic of Quantum Mechanics are depending (...)
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  31. \citeCompendium}.J. D. Carmichael (ed.) - 2009
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  32. \citeCompendium}.D. H. Zeh (ed.) - 2009
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  33. Laws of Physics.Eddy Keming Chen - 2024 - Cambridge, United Kingdom : New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
    Despite its apparent complexity, our world seems to be governed by simple laws of physics. This volume provides a philosophical introduction to such laws. I explain how they are connected to some of the central issues in philosophy, such as ontology, possibility, explanation, induction, counterfactuals, time, determinism, and fundamentality. I suggest that laws are fundamental facts that govern the world by constraining its physical possibilities. I examine three hallmarks of laws-simplicity, exactness, and objectivity-and discuss whether and how they may be (...)
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  34. The Circular Theory.Ilexa Yardley - 2010 - Integrated Thought Concepts.
    Conservation of the Circle is the core (and, thus, the only) dynamic in Nature.
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  35. Oxford Handbook of the History of Interpretations and Foundations of Quantum Mechanics.Massimiliano Badino (ed.) - forthcoming - Oxford, Regno Unito:
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  36. Probing the Meaning of Quantum Mechanics.Christian de Ronde, Diederik Aerts, M. L. Dalla Chiara & Décio Krause (eds.) - 2019 - Singapore: World Scientific.
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  37. Quantum Interaction. QI 2016. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 10106.José Acacio de Barros, Bob Coecke & E. Pothos (eds.) - 2016 - Springer, Cham.
  38. Non-Hermitian Hamiltonians in Quantum Physics. Springer Proceedings in Physics, vol 184.F. Bagarello, R. Passante & C. Trapani (eds.) - 2016 - Springer, Cham.
  39. Compendium of Quantum Physics.Craig Callender (ed.) - 2009 - Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
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  40. Density Matrix Realism.Eddy Keming Chen - 2024 - In Michael E. Cuffaro & Stephan Hartmann, Open Systems: Physics, Metaphysics, and Methodology (2025: Oxford University Press). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
    Realism about quantum theory naturally leads to realism about the quantum state of the universe. It leaves open whether it is a pure state represented by a wave function, or an impure (mixed) one represented by a density matrix. I characterize and elaborate on Density Matrix Realism, the thesis that the universal quantum state is objective but can be impure. To clarify the thesis, I compare it with Wave Function Realism, explain the conditions under which they are empirically equivalent, consider (...)
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  41. Reconstructions of quantum theory: methodology and the role of axiomatization.Jessica Oddan - 2024 - European Journal for Philosophy of Science 14 (2):1-24.
    Reconstructions of quantum theory are a novel research program in theoretical physics which aims to uncover the unique physical features of quantum theory via axiomatization. I focus on Hardy’s “Quantum Theory from Five Reasonable Axioms” (2001), arguing that reconstructions represent a modern usage of axiomatization with significant points of continuity to von Neumann’s axiomatizations in quantum mechanics. In particular, I show that Hardy and von Neumann share similar methodological ordering, have a common operational framing, and insist on the empirical basis (...)
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  42. Pedagogical Encounters in the Post-Anthropocene, Volume 2: Technology, Neurology, Quantum.Jan Jagodzinski - 2024 - Springer Nature Switzerland.
    As a follow up to Pedagogical Encounters in the Post-Anthropocene, Volume I, this book addresses three major areas in response to the post-Anthropocene: Technology, Neurology, Quantum. Each of these areas is broadly addressed in relation to the concerns that have arisen both theoretically and educationally. As in Volume I, the author terms these to be encounters as each area presents a particular problematic when addressing the phase change that the planet is undergoing where the anthropogenic labour of global humanity is (...)
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  43. Finite Frequentism Explains Quantum Probability.Simon Saunders - forthcoming - British Journal for the Philosophy of Science.
    I show that frequentism, as an explanation of probability in classical statistical mechanics, can be extended in a natural way to a decoherent quantum history space, the analogue of a classical phase space. The result is a form of finite frequentism, in which Gibbs’ concept of an infinite ensemble of gases is replaced by the quantum state expressed as a superposition of a finite number of decohering microstates. It is a form of finite and actual frequentism (as opposed to hypothetical (...)
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  44. A No-Go Result on Observing Quantum Superpositions.Guang Ping He - 2024 - Foundations of Physics 54 (2):1-11.
    We give a general proof showing that if the evolution from one state to another is not reversible, then the projective measurements on the superposition of these two states are impossible. Applying this no-go result to the Schrödinger’s cat paradox implies that if something is claimed to be a real Schrödinger’s cat, there will be no measurable difference between it and a trivial classical mixture of ordinary cats in any physically implementable process, unless raising the dead becomes reality. Other similar (...)
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  45. Causal Set Theory and Growing Block? Not Quite.Marco Forgione - manuscript
    In this contribution, I explore the possibility of characterizing the emergence of time in causal set theory (CST) in terms of the growing block universe (GBU) metaphysics. I show that although GBU seems to be the most intuitive time metaphysics for CST, it leaves us with a number of interpretation problems, independently of which dynamics we choose to favor for the theory —here I shall consider the Classical Sequential Growth and the Covariant model. Discrete general covariance of the CSG dynamics (...)
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  46. On algebraic naturalism and metaphysical indeterminacy in quantum mechanics.Tushar Menon - 2024 - Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A 105 (C):1-16.
  47. Probing The Meaning Of Quantum Mechanics: Probability, Metaphysics, Explanation And Measurement.Diederik Aerts, Jonas Arenhart, Christian De Ronde & Giuseppe Sergioli (eds.) - 2023 - World Scientific.
    Quantum theory is perhaps our best confirmed theory for a description of the physical properties of nature. On top of demonstrating great empirical effectiveness, many technological developments in the 20th century (such as the interpretation of the periodic table of elements, CD players, holograms, and quantum state teleportation) were only made possible with Quantum theory.Despite its success in the past decades, even today it still remains without a universally accepted interpretation.This book provides an interdisciplinary perspective on the question; 'What is (...)
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  48. Prime Matter and the Quantum Wavefunction.Robert C. Koons - 2024 - Ancient Philosophy Today 6 (1):92-119.
    Prime matter plays an indispensable role in Aristotle’s philosophy, enabling him to avoid the pitfalls of both naïve Platonism and nominalism. Prime matter is best thought of as a kind of infinitely divisible and atomless bare particularity, grounding the distinctness of distinct members of the same species. Such bare particularity is needed in symmetrical situations, like a world consisting of indistinguishable Max Black spheres. Bare particularity is especially important in modern physics, given the homogeneity and isotropy of space. With the (...)
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  49. Quantum Consummation.Alexej Savreux - 2020 - Tommy Aqua's Journal of Philosophy 1:45-47.
    This essay focuses on the MWI hypothesis's characteristic features and logical extrapolations. To substantiate our argument, it uses a "rational structure of causality" argument to support quantum immortality based loosely on quantum theory and neuroscience. By identifying and articulating arguments in favor of quantum immortality based on the immutable laws of physics, we argue that the death of a conscious being is impossible on ideological and scientific grounds.
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  50. On Time, Causality, and the Block Universe.Anthony C. Proctor - 2022 - London: Clink Street Publishing.
    A serious examination of the viability of a static block universe, and an exploration of its repercussions in the fields of consciousness, causality, free will, cosmology, and quantum mechanics.
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