Quantum Electrodynamics

Gravity remains the most elusive field. Its relationship with the electromagnetic field is poorly understood. Relativity and quantum mechanics describe the aforementioned fields, respectively. Bosons and fermions are often credited with responsibility for the interactions of force and matter. It is shown here that fermions factually determine the gravitational structure of the universe, while bosons are responsible for the three established and described forces. Underlying the relationships of the gravitational and electromagnetic fields is a symmetrical probability distribution of fermions and (...) bosons. Werner Heisenberg's assertion that the Schr\'f6dinger wave function and Heisenberg matrices do not describe one thing is confirmed. It is asserted that the conscious observation of Schr\'f6dinger's wave function never causes its collapse, but invariably produces the classical space described by the Heisenberg picture. As a result, the Heisenberg picture can be explained and substantiated only in terms of conscious observation of the Schr\'f6dinger wave function. Schr\'f6dinger\'92s picture is defined as information space, while Heisenberg\'92s picture is defined as classical space. B-theory postulates that although the Schr\'f6dinger picture and the Heisenberg picture are mathematically connected, the former is eternal while the latter is discrete, existing only as the sequence of discrete conscious moments. Inferences related to information-based congruence between physical and mental phenomena have long been discussed in the literature. Moreover, John Wheeler suggested that information is fundamental to the physics of the universe. However, there is a great deal of uncertainty about how the physical and the mental complement each other. Bishop Berkeley and Ernst Mach, to name two who have addressed the subject, simply reject the concept of the material world altogether. Professor Hardy defined physical reality as 'dubious and elusive'. It is proposed in this paper that physical reality, or physical instantiation in the classical space as described by Heisenberg picture is one thing with the consciousness. (shrink)

Philosophers of physics have spent much effort unpacking the structure of gauge theories. But surprisingly, little attention has been devoted to the question of why we should require our best theories to be locally gauge invariant in the first place. Drawing on Steven Weinberg's works in the mid-1960s, I argue that the principle of local gauge invariance follows from Lorentz invariance and other natural assumptions in the context of perturbative relativistic quantum field theory. On this view, gauge freedom is a (...) mere accidental feature of an already highly constrained set of quantities; the distinctive structure of our best gauge theories, in turn, traces back to the peculiar space-time transformation properties of particles like photons, gluons, and gravitons. I conclude by drawing a few interpretative lessons for the philosophy of gauge theories. (shrink)

Accordingly, if the antennas used in nano-components are to be within this range, it should be expected that the electromagnetic waves used in the communications of these systems and devices will be around several tens of terahertz, which will include wavelengths in the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet regions. -/- .

The main difference between nanotube antennas and classical antennas is that if the wave speed is the speed of light, the current distribution wavelength is the wavelength of electromagnetic waves in free space. On the other hand, the wave speed in nanotubes is about a hundred times slower than the speed of light. This is because in circuit theory, the wave speed is equal to the inverse square root of the capacitive capacitance per unit length multiplied by the inductive capacitance (...) per unit length .Nano-networks have greater communication and processing potentials that overcome the limitations of independent nano-devices through the cooperation of nano-devices. One of the problems that has not yet been well solved in nanotechnology is how to establish electrical communication between nano-electronic devices and the macroscopic world without losing the capabilities of these nano-elements. One of these new areas and functions of nano-technology is nano-antennas , which are used in various fields such as nano-sensors, communication nano-networks, electrical energy generation and other similar topics and are considered as one of the current areas of nano-technology development. At the nano-scale, graphene-based antennas are used to transmit EM waves. Graphene is a very thin single-atom sheet of confined carbon atoms placed on a crystal lattice . Given the very small dimensions of nano-sensors, nano-antennas need to have a very high operating frequency in order to be usable. However, the use of graphene helps to solve this problem to a large extent. With the development of nanoscale device fabrication technology, it has become possible to fabricate nanoantennas and use them in various applications. Communication between nanodevices is a major challenge related to the development of nanoantennas and related electromagnetic receivers. Reducing the size of traditional antennas to hundreds of nanometers leads to very high operating frequencies . At THz band frequencies, the very large bandwidth available leads to much higher path loss than lower frequency bands . Nanoantennas can be made from metallic materials such as silver , aluminum, chromium , gold, and copper, or they can be made from new materials such as CNTs and graphene, which are attractive choices for nanoantennas. Using graphene to fabricate antennas can overcome size and communication limitations. In addition, the resonant frequency of nanoantennas based on graphene can be up to two orders of magnitude larger than that of nanoantennas made with other materials. -/- . (shrink)

Note : Since the use of optical nano-antennas for solar energy harvesting offers a practical solution with high efficiency compared to other common photovoltaic technologies such as solar panels, it has led to rapid development in the nano-and optical materials industry. -/- When a solar electromagnetic wave strikes the surface of a nanoantenna, a time-varying current is generated on the surface of the nanoantenna, resulting in a voltage at its feed gap. An antenna is a device that can receive electromagnetic (...) waves in space. In order for an antenna to receive a solar electromagnetic wave, the dimensions of the antenna must be on the order of the wavelength of the incoming wave to its surface. (shrink)

Supersymmetry (SUSY) has long been considered an exceptionally promising theory. A central role for the promise has been played by naturalness arguments. Yet, given the absence of experimental findings it is questionable whether the promise will ever be fulfilled. Here, I provide an analysis of the promises associated with SUSY, employing a concept of pursuitworthiness. A research program like SUSY is pursuitworthy if (1) it has the plausible potential to provide high epistemic gain and (2) that gain can be achieved (...) with manageable research efforts. Naturalness arguments have been employed to support both conditions (1) and (2). First, SUSY has been motivated by way of analogy: the proposed symmetry between fermions and bosons is supposed to 'protect' the small Higgs mass from large quantum corrections just as the electron mass is protected through the chiral symmetry. Thus, SUSY held the promise of solving a major problem of the Standard Model of particle physics. Second, naturalness arguments have been employed to indicate that such gain is achievable at relatively low cost: SUSY discoveries seemed to be well in reach of upcoming high-energy experiments. While the first part of the naturalness argument may have the right form to facilitate considerations of pursuitworthiness, the second part of the argument has been problematically overstated. (shrink)

Empirical evidence indicates that conscious states, distinguished by the presence of phenomenal qualities, are closely linked to synchronized neural activity patterns whose dynamical characteristics can be attributed to self-organized criticality and phase transitions. These findings imply that insight into the mechanism by which the brain controls phase transitions will provide a deeper understanding of the fundamental mechanism by which the brain manages to transcend the threshold of consciousness. This article aims to show that the initiation of phase transitions and the (...) formation of synchronized activity patterns is due to the coupling of the brain to the zero-point field (ZPF), which plays a central role in quantum electrodynamics (QED). The ZPF stands for the presence of ubiquitous vacuum fluctuations of the electromagnetic field, represented by a spectrum of normal modes. With reference to QED-based model calculations, the details of the coupling mechanism are revealed, suggesting that critical brain dynamics is governed by the resonant interaction of the ZPF with the most abundant neurotransmitter glutamate. The pyramidal neurons in the cortical microcolumns turn out to be ideally suited to control this interaction. A direct consequence of resonant glutamate-ZPF coupling is the amplification of specific ZPF modes, which leads us to conclude that the ZPF is the key to the understanding of consciousness and that the distinctive feature of neurophysiological processes associated with conscious experience consists in modulating the ZPF. Postulating that the ZPF is an inherently sentient field and assuming that the spectrum of phenomenal qualities is represented by the normal modes of the ZPF, the significance of resonant glutamate-ZPF interaction for the formation of conscious states becomes apparent in that the amplification of specific ZPF modes is inextricably linked with the excitation of specific phenomenal qualities. This theory of consciousness, according to which phenomenal states arise through resonant amplification of zero-point modes, is given the acronym TRAZE. An experimental setup is specified that can be used to test a corollary of the theory, namely, the prediction that normally occurring conscious perceptions are absent under experimental conditions in which resonant glutamate-ZPF coupling is disrupted. (shrink)

Nanosupercapacitors, also called electrochemical supercapacitors or nanocapacitors, thus emerge as promising fuel sources with astonishingly fast charge release rates. Incredibly fast charging occurs. Created to improve power execution (high-speed capability), they still depend on similar inherent breakpoints. About the electrical characteristics and the manufacturing process of a nanocapacitor structure using (metalinsulator-carbon-metal nanotube layers). This structure shows high capacitance and the possibility of extremely high integration density due to the unique structure of the nanotubes. Nanoscale patterns and a high aspect ratio (...) are obtained by electron beam lithography to make these vertical nanostructures. This structure can be used to replace capacitors that use a silicon pillar structure in dynamic random access memory (DRAM) or as a nanoscale capacitor for various nanoelectronic devices. .To build nano supercapacitors, high voltage and high energy density developed multilayer nanostructure technologies to make an improvement in capacitor performance. Controlled sputtering techniques can deposit ultra-smooth submicron layers of dielectric and conductive materials. Using this technology, high voltage nanosupercapacitors with an order of magnitude improvement in energy density may be achievable.. Dielectrics and new materials that are well understood for use with this technology. Nano supercapacitors developed with multi-layer nanostructure technology are inherently solid and show excellent mechanical and thermal properties. >Dielectric materials and exchanges design with more layers. Nanostructure multilayer capacitors will be developed and specified. (shrink)

The unique properties of nanomaterials such as high electrical conductivity, better shock tolerance, and sensitive responses such as versatile piezo-electric and color detection mechanisms are only results of the multitude of properties of nanomaterials. Different types of biosensors are propagated based on different types of nanomaterials and their developmental and implicit aspects. Measurement of biological responses has assumed great importance in the current scenario of ever-dynamic environmental developments and altered hemostatic events occurring at the in vivo as well as intracorporeal (...) level . Analyzing the behavior of changing materials is of great importance in areas such as pharmaceutical diagnostics, food quality screening, and environmental applications. (shrink)

Note: Many types of nanosensors are designed using CP nanomaterials for nanobiological applications. (Conductive surface) The oxidation of conductive polymeric materials is easily altered by redox mechanisms, and the charge transfer properties of these materials are affected by structural parameters, such as diameter and dimensions. CP materials are able to provide sensitive and rapid responses to specific biological and chemical species. Techniques such as chemical polymerization are often used to make CP nanomaterials. Manufacturing strategies can be divided into three categories: (...) hard mold synthesis, soft mold synthesis, and mold-free synthesis. The most widely used conductive polymers in nanosensors are nanomaterials made from CP due to their unique chemical and electrical properties resulting from the properties of their pie-electron nanosystem. Many modeling and functionalization technologies are being developed to control the location, distribution, amount, or structure and orientation of biological nanomolecules at the nanomaterial level. Therefore, our level of contact between biological nanomolecules and nanomaterials is of particular importance in countless applications. Covalent and non-covalent modifications are two general methods for coupling biological molecules and CP nanomaterials. Covalent functionalization is a chemical process in which a strong bond or relationship between nanomaterials and biological molecules is formed. In many cases, surface chemical modifications are required to create active groups that can bind to biomolecules. Unlike covalent functionalization, in the non-covalent method, nanomolecules can be removed without destroying the geometric and electronic structure on the surface. Nanomaterials are formed. Conclusion : The large surface-to-volume ratio in nanostructures and the high potential for signal amplification provide ideal conditions for marking and detecting biological elements in the structure of nanosensors. (shrink)

based on organic materials can be mechanically exible to a large extent because of the loose intermolecular bonds in the nano-electrons created from them. Unlike these organic materials, minerals such as silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide can be used in the structure of electronic devices only in crystalline states, and in this case, covalent bonds make exibility impossible in them. Makes. Properties such as strength, exibility, electrical conductivity, magnetic properties, color, reactivity, etc. Starting to change the properties of the material (...) by shrinking it depends more than anything on the type of material and the desired property. For example, by reducing the dimensions of a material, generally some mechanical properties of the material such as strength are improved. This increase in strength does not happen only in the range of a few nanometers, and the strength of materials of several tens and even hundreds of nanometers may be much higher than the large-scale mass material. On the other hand, the change of some properties such as color and magnetic properties may occur in dimensions of only a few nanometers. (shrink)

Devices based on organic materials can be mechanically flexible to a large extent because of the loose intermolecular bonds in the nano-electrons created from them. Unlike these organic materials, minerals such as silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide can be used in the structure of electronic devices only in crystalline states, and in this case, covalent bonds make flexibility impossible in them. Makes. Properties such as strength, flexibility, electrical conductivity, magnetic properties, color, reactivity, etc. Starting to change the properties of the (...) material by shrinking it depends more than anything on the type of material and the desired property. For example, by reducing the dimensions of a material, generally some mechanical properties of the material such as strength are improved. This increase in strength does not happen only in the range of a few nanometers, and the strength of materials of several tens and even hundreds of nanometers may be much higher than the large-scale mass material. On the other hand, the change of some properties such as color and magnetic properties may occur in dimensions of only a few nanometers. (shrink)

In general, in order to receive the electromagnetic wave in the space, the dimensions of the antenna must be in the order of the wavelength of the input to its surface. Due to the very small dimensions of nano sensors, nano antennas need to have a very high working frequency to be usable. The use of graphene helps to solve this problem to a great extent. The speed of propagation of waves in CNTs and GNRs can be 100 times lower (...) than its speed in vacuum, and this is related to the physical structure, temperature and energy. Based on this, the resonance frequency of graphene-based nano-antennas can be two orders of magnitude lower than nano-antennas based on nano-carbon materials. It has been mathematically and theoretically proven that a quasi-metallic carbon nanotube can emit terahertz radiation when a time-varying voltage is applied to its sides. One of the most important parameters of any nano antenna is the current distribution on it. This characteristic determines the radiation pattern, radiation resistance and reactance and many important characteristics of the antenna. Despite the possibilities of making nanotubes with a length of several centimeters, it is possible to make electrical conductors with a length-to-width ratio of the order of 10^7. has it. At first glance, nanotube antennas give us the impression that they are similar to Dipole antennas designed in small dimensions. (shrink)

Nanoparticles can also be used as catalysts due to their high surface area. Of course, catalytic properties also occur in certain dimensions like magnetic properties. In other words, nanoparticles usually have catalytic properties if their specific surface is between 100 and 400 square meters per gram. Therefore, among nanoparticles with a specific volume, a nanoparticle with a larger surface area shows better catalytic properties. An example of nanoparticles that act as catalysts where various substances are placed on their surface and (...) chemical reactions are carried out. Apart from the mentioned cases, nanoparticles have many other applications in various medical industries (drug delivery, etc.), automobiles (anti-fogging windows, lightening the body, strengthening tires), electronics (making transistors), etc. The strength of carbon-carbon bonds gives carbon nanotubes amazing electronic properties. No previous material exhibits the extraordinary combination of mechanical, thermal and electronic properties attributed to them . However, their conductivity is what sets them apart. Multi-layered carbon nanotubes are the strongest materials that mankind has discovered so far in terms of electronic conductivity. The highest tensile strength or breaking strain for a carbon nanotube was up to 63 GPa, which is about 50 times more than the strongest conductors. Even the weakest types of multi-layered carbon nanotubes have multifold power in electronic conduction. These properties, along with the lightness of carbon nanotubes, give them great potential in applications such as aerospace. The electronic properties of the wall of carbon nanotubes are also extraordinary. It has high electrical conductivity (comparable to copper). It is particularly noteworthy that nanotubes can be metallic or semiconducting. The rolling action breaks the symmetry of the planar system and imposes a specific direction with respect to the hexagonal grid and the axial direction. Depending on the relationship between these axial directions and the unit vectors that describe the hexagonal lattice, nanotubes may behave electrically like metals or semiconductors , with some nanotubes having higher conductivity than copper, while Others behave more like silicon . And there are possibilities of making nano electronic devices from multi-layer nanotubes of CNTs. (shrink)

The development of biosensors to measure the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the blood began. This sensor is also called COBD because it covers the surface of the electrode with an enzyme whose constituent is sometimes called (electro-calorie). Later, it helped oxidize glucose. This sensor was used to measure blood sugar. In the same Bapvshandn electrode, an enzyme that has the ability to convert urea into ammonium carbonate in the electrode material ++ ion, NH4, was used to create biosensors that (...) could measure the urea in the blood or urine. Each of these two early biosensors used a different transducer in its signal conversion section . In the first type, blood sugar was measured by measuring the electric current generated (ammetric),while in the urea sensor, the urea concentration was measured based on the electric charge created sensors are made (.Potentiometric) may someday the patient without having to visit a doctor and only on the basis of information that a COBD or Doctor-Board-on-Chip provides, the type of disease has been detected. And then injected into the blood. This will drastically reduce the dosage of the required drugs directly from the side effects of the Effect-Side drug , because the drug is very low and is also sent to the required place in the body. The drug acts directly on a biosensor that converts the biological response into an electrical signal and consists of two main components: the receptor and the detector. The ability to select one biosensor is determined by the receiving section. Enzymes, antibodies, and lipid layers are good examples of receptors. The task of the detector is to convert the physical or chemical changes by detecting the material to be analyzed into an obvious factor that the detectors can select in the type of reaction of the electrical signal. They do not have the perfect .They are electrochemical, optical, piezoelectric, and thermal. In the type of electrochemistry the action takes place in one of the following ways: amperometric, potentiometric, and impedance. The most common electrodes used in the potentiometric type include: the Glass electrode, the Selective-Ion ion electrode, and the FET sensitive-Ion ion field-effect transistor or ISFET. In general, a biosensor consists of an immobilized static biological system, such as a cell bundle, a micro enzyme, or an antibody, and a measuring. In the presence of a certain molecule, the biological system changes the properties of the environment. (shrink)

Note: In general, in order to receive the electromagnetic wave in the space, the dimensions of the antenna must be in the order of the wavelength of the input to its surface. Due to the very small dimensions of nano sensors, nano antennas need to have a very high working frequency to be usable. -/- The use of graphene helps to solve this problem to a great extent. The speed of propagation of waves in CNTs and GNRs can be 100 (...) times lower than its speed in vacuum, and this is related to the physical structure, temperature and energy. Based on this, the resonance frequency of graphene-based nano-antennas can be two orders of magnitude lower than nano-antennas based on nano-carbon materials. It has been mathematically and theoretically proven that a quasi-metallic carbon nanotube can emit terahertz radiation when a time-varying voltage is applied to its sides. One of the most important parameters of any nano antenna is the current distribution on it. This characteristic determines the radiation pattern, radiation resistance and reactance and many important characteristics of the antenna. Despite the possibilities of making nanotubes with a length of several centimeters, it is possible to make electrical conductors with a length-to-width ratio of the order of 10^7. has it. At first glance, nanotube antennas give us the impression that they are similar to Dipole antennas designed in small dimensions. (shrink)

FinFEET nanotransistors are field-effect nanotransistors (metal-oxide-semiconductor) that are made on asubstrate. The gate is located on two, three, or four sides of the channel or is wrapped. The channel forms adouble gate structure. These devices are given the general name "finfets" because the source/drain region formsfins on the silicon surface. FinFET devices, compared to flat technology and using nanowires in the structureand (complementary metal oxide and semiconductor), < a i=8>have significantly faster switching and highercurrent density.Due to the reduction of the (...) scale of semiconductor components and integrated circuits to thenanometer range, in the FinFET nanotransistor, the reduction of scale causes more short channel effects, lessgate control, an exponential increase in leakage currents, severe process changes, and power densities tobecome unmanageable. The connection between the carbon and metal nanotubes used to connect the sourceand the drain forms the Schottky barrier (SB) in a FinFET nanotransistor. The formation of Schottky barriers inthe source and drain of a transistor causes a significant decrease in the drain current of FinFET nanotransistors. (shrink)

Magnetic water is generally water that passes through a magnetic field created based on specific calculations, and therefore the water changes, improving its physical and chemical properties. Magnetic system can treat water salinity.

Nano fullerenes with the ability to store electrostatic energy that can be used as nano supercapacitors with very high capacity. Also, with these nanotubes, the nervous network can be repaired. Carbon nano fullerenes are allotropes of carbon such as diamond and graphite. These compounds are made of carbon and take on spherical and elliptical shapes. Those that are spherical are called buckyballs.Fullerenes do not have much chemical activity. The width of the graphite plate is about a few nanometers. The length (...) of the nanotubes ranges from a few micrometers to less than a meter. Their unique molecular structure creates unusual macroscopic properties. Nano supercapacitor can store 100 times more energy than previous devices of its kind. Finally, such devices can store waves of energy from renewable sources such as wind and deliver that energy to the power grid when needed. In general, nanoelectric supercapacitors can store large amounts of energy, but they tend to charge slowly and wear out quickly. Meanwhile, capacitors have a longer life and can be discharged quickly, but store much less total energy. In order to make nano supercapacitors, nanostructured arrays of electrostatic capacitors can be created.Electrostatic nanocapacitors are the simplest type of electronic energy storage device. They store electrical charge on the surface of two metal electrodes separated by an insulating material. The electrical storage capacity of the nano supercapacitor is directly proportional to the surface area of these sandwich-like electrodes. (shrink)

Fullerenes are nanometer-sized molecules that, in their simplest form, form 60 carbon atoms of a graphite layer with a three-dimensional structure. 60 Unlike diamond and graphite, whose molecules are continuous, fullerenes are closed molecules: they are like C60 and... (60) fullerenes, which are also called buckyball and buckytube, include nanotubes, nanofibers, fullerene has a structure similar to graphite, but instead of completely hexagonal sections, carbon atoms are placed in the vertices of the 5th or 7th polygons.

The antenna is considered as the primary means of absorbing electromagnetic waves in space and has its own engineering knowledge, which is very developed and extensive. In general, in order to receive the electromagnetic wave in space, the dimensions of the antenna must be in the order of the size of the input wavelength to its surface. Due to the very low dimensions of nano-sensors, nano-antennas need a very high operating frequency to be usable. The use of graphene greatly helps (...) to solve this problem. Wave propagation velocities in CNTs and GNRs can be up to 100 times slower than vacuum velocities, depending on the physical structure, temperature and energy. Accordingly, the resonant frequency of graphene-based nano-antennas can be twice as low as (nano-carbon) nano-antennas. (shrink)

Note: The field-effect tunnel transistor nMOS is an experimental type of transistor. Even if its structure is very similar to a metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor nMOS , the basic switching mechanisms in these two transistors differ from each other; nMOS instead of exhibiting thermionic emission modulation, changes through a quantum tunnel modulation 12> They change through a dam. The field-effect tunneling transistor nMOS, as an alternative to conventional CMOS by enabling the voltage supply (VDD) with ultra-low power consumption, enables energy-efficient (...) computing during the sub-threshold slope (SS) range. This type of device has a reverse-bias gate structure, which is usually called a tunnel field-effect transistor nMOS. For low power applications, nMOS is considered. This device has less static leakage current than a MOSFET and is more resistant to SCEs. The most outstanding feature of nMOS is the capacity to produce a reverse subthreshold swing (SS) of less than the 60 mV/decade thermal limit (at 300 K), which is related to common reverse mode nMOSs. A pseudo-thermal SS is achievable because the drain current in nMOSs is generated by source-to-channel carrier injection, which is often under the band tunneling radius. It is placed in the quantum mechanical band (BTBT). Transistor speed nMOS is proportional to the current. The higher the current, the faster the transistor will be able to amplify and charge (the sequential capacitor voltage). For a given transistor speed and maximum acceptable subthreshold leakage, the subthreshold slope thus defines a minimum threshold voltage. Decreasing the threshold voltage is an essential part of the idea to scale the constant amount of nMOS to overcome some challenges associated with the nMOS structure, such as its need for ultra-sharp doping profiles; however, such devices may suffer from gate leakage due to the presence of large vertical fields in the nMOS transistor structure. (shrink)

MEMS is a structural technology, an example of the design and development of sophisticated, well integrated electronics systems and mechanical devices utilizing single-stage manufacturing techniques . Techniques for making the MEMS enables the components and equipment with performance and increased production are combined with the advantages of the ordinary, such as reducing the size of the physical volume, weight and cost and providing a basis for the production of non-manufacturing methods, the other is the reality of internal order Technology MEMS (...) and its micro-machining techniques are well versed in its application to an unprecedented range of MEMS devices over previous dependent fields (for example Biology and Microelectronics) These agents make MEMS far more comprehensive than IC microchips technology . (shrink)

Electron beam lithography provides the possibility of precise control of nanostructure characteristics that form the basis of various nanotechnologies. The nanostructure fabrication and measurement group advances lithography precision at the nanometer scale and creates processes for manufacturing innovative devices and standards in physical fields ranging from photonics to fluids.< /span>Such measurements create a positive feedback loop for the fabrication and measurement of nanostructures.Electron beam lithography is used for pattern standards for atomic force correlation microscopy and ultra-resolution optical microscopy, with highthroughput (...) precision localization and process parameter characterization and optimization. (shrink)

All electrochemical nano biosensors that have a molecular base depend on a very specific system to detect or track their target molecule. The importance of an electrochemical nanobiosensor is to provide a suitable support for connecting the target molecule to the probe and creating an electrical signal that can be measured and read.

The antenna is considered as the primary means of absorbing electromagnetic waves in space and has its own engineering knowledge, which is very developed and extensive. In general, in order to receive the electromagnetic wave in space, the dimensions of the antenna must be in the order of the size of the input wavelength to its surface. Due to the very low dimensions of nano-sensors, nano-antennas need a very high operating frequency to be usable. The use of graphene greatly helps (...) to solve this problem. Wave propagation velocities in CNTs and GNRs can be up to 100 times slower than vacuum velocities, depending on the physical structure, temperature and energy. Accordingly, the resonant frequency of graphene-based nano-antennas can be twice as low as (nano-carbon) nano-antennas. (shrink)

nanological gates, in order to design nano-scale computers with dual-scale capabilities. All living biological systems function due to the molecular interactions of different subsystems. Molecular components (proteins and nucleic acids, lipids and carbohydrates, DNA and RNA) can be used as an inspirational strategy on how to design high-performance NEMS and MEMS that have the required features and characteristics. Considered. In addition, analytical and numerical methods are available for dynamic analysis and three-dimensional geometry, bonding and other properties of atoms and molecules. (...) Thus, electromagnetic and mechanical, and other physical and chemical properties can be studied. Nanostructures and nanosystems can be widely used in medicine and health. Possible applications of nanotechnology include: drug synthesis and drug delivery (therapeutic potential is greatly increased due to the effective direct delivery of new types of drugs to specific sites in the body), nanosurgery and nanotherapy Synthesis and detection of genomes, nano-scale stimuli and sensors (diagnosis and prevention of disease), design and implantation of non-rejection artificial organs and design of high performance nanomaterials. It is important that these technologies change the manufacture of materials, devices and systems. (shrink)

Nowadays, many semiconductors such as silicon are used in a wide range of nanoelectronic devices. However, due to the range of thermal changes and its extremely high speed, nano diamond is only compared to gold nanoparticles, which is the second best nano semiconductor in the world. Nano graphite and graphene nano strips are electrically conductive due to cloud scattering. Active nano diamond particles with such features, especially electronic ones, can be the foundation of completely new types of powerful nano electronic (...) devices. (shrink)

Fullerenes are among the materials that many nano materials are based on. Their unique structural and electronic properties, as well as their use in various fields such as electronic applications such as making nano electrodes used in special electrical circuits , nano photonics in nano solar cells and nano absorbers of specific wavelengths. Layers of nanotubes can behave like a metal and be electrically angled. Changing the structure and building in them can show the characteristics of semiconductors. or be non-conductive. (...) For example, a slight change in the helix can change the tube from a metal to a wide-gap semiconductor. -/- . (shrink)

To approach the creation of artificial conscious systems systematically and to obtain certainty about the presence of phenomenal qualities (qualia) in these systems, we must first decipher the fundamental mechanism behind conscious processes. In achieving this goal, the conventional physicalist position exhibits obvious shortcomings in that it provides neither a plausible mechanism for the generation of qualia nor tangible demarcation criteria for conscious systems. Therefore, to remedy the deficiencies of the standard physicalist approach, a new theory for the understanding of (...) consciousness has been formulated. The aim of the paper is to present the cornerstones of this theory, to outline the conditions for conscious systems derived from the theory, and to address the implications of these conditions for the creation of robots that transcend the threshold of phenomenal awareness. In short, the theory is based on the proposition that the universe is permeated by a ubiquitous field of consciousness that can be equated with the zero-point field (ZPF) of quantum electrodynamics (QED). The ZPF, which is characterized by a spectrum of field modes, plays a crucial role in the edifice of modern physics. QED-based model calculations on cortical dynamics and empirical findings on the neural correlates of consciousness suggest that a physical system can only generate conscious states if it is capable of establishing resonant coupling to the ZPF, resulting in the amplification of selected field modes and the activation of the phenomenal qualities that are assumed to be associated with these modes. Thus, scientifically sound considerations support the conclusion that the crucial condition for generating conscious states lies in a system's capacity to tap into the phenomenal color palette inherent in the ZPF. (shrink)

Note: NI_nanoparticle nickel nanoparticles is a strong conductor of electric current and its surface is shiny and polished. This element belongs to the group of iron and cobalt elementsUsing particles from the microscale to the nanoscale provides benefits for various scientific fields, but because a large percentage of their atoms is on the surface, nanomaterials can be highly reactive and pose risks. have a potential for humans. Nanoparticles are of great interest due to their wide application, both in industry and (...) in the natural sciences. While natural materials have constant physical properties regardless of size, the size of a nanoparticle determines its physical and chemical properties. Therefore, the properties of a material change as its size approaches the nanoscale and the percentage of atoms on the surface of the material becomes significant. The important feature of all nano structures is that in which the number of surface atoms is more than the number of volume atoms. This ratio increases with decreasing nanoparticle size. Therefore, the size of the nanoparticle is considered its most important feature. The range of activity of nanoparticles depends on the nature and shape of the nanostructure. However, if the energy of the nanoparticle field is comparable to the energy of electromagnetic radiation and if in a certain range a wavelength with the occurrence of chemical reactions in materials Under irradiation, significant changes will be made in the activity of nanoparticles up to 100 nm in size. is the nanometer expected to be used for storage. Given the relatively large (physically speaking) storage devices we have now and the fact that we need gigabyte sizes in various areas, there is a high potential for activity in this There is a context. Each quantum dot consists of a discrete ball of several hundred atoms that can have one of two magnetic states. This allows them to contain a single bit of information (zero or one), as is customary in machine computing. In conventional hard disks, the data bits must be spaced far enough apart that they do not overlap. Quantum dots act as completely independent units that are not structurally connected, so they can become somewhat closer to each other. One of the new information storage tools is the use of nickel quantum dots in nanometer sizes, which are expected to be used to store terabytes of data. (shrink)

In the immersion method, nanowires have enough time to transfer from nanoparticle particles to cavities ; The formation step of uniform nanoparticles is done slowly and finally uniform nanowires are formed. Structural study with FESEM in the immersion method of single-stranded nanowires in all porosities and in a large area of nanowire particles are formed. Changing the Sr / Fe ratio does not change the morphology of the nanowires. And spectroscopy of nanowires with a ratio of Sr / Fe states (...) within the nano-particles inside (nanowires uniform) elements Fe and Sr of ferrite strontium in spectroscopy nanowires uniform is seen in the sample of nanoparticles Sr / Fe to value Its stoichiometry is closer to that of nanoparticles in electromagnetic composition, while due to the lower solubility of uniform strontium nanowire nanomolecules compared to iron nitrate and the consequent presence of less strontium ions in reaction with electromagnetic nanoparticles. There is more Fe ion in the final structure. Electro-magnetically active particles are used to separate uniform nanowires at ambient temperature . In the application of nanowires in nanoscale electronics or some other applications, it is necessary to separate the nanowires from alumina particles . (shrink)

In a nMOS graphene field effect transistor, the resistance between two electrodes can be transferred or controlled by a third electrode. In a multilayer graphene field effect nMOS transistor, the current between the two electrodes is controlled by the electric field from the third electrode. Unlike the bipolar transistor, it is capacitively connected to the third electrode and is not in contact with the semiconductor. Three electrodes in the structure of the nMOS graphene field effect transistor are connected to the (...) source, drain and gate, and this action increases the switching speed (doping) in the nMOS graphene transistor circuit. (shrink)

Oligophenylene vanillin nanowires (Si Silicon / Germanium Gi) , narrow structures whose diameter is only a few billionths of a meter but thousands or millions of times longer. They exist in various forms—made of metals, semiconductors, insulators, and organic compounds—and are used for applications in the fields of electronics, energy conversion, optics, and chemical sensing. Because of their extreme thinness, Oligophenylene vanillin nanowires with a (Si Silicon / Germanium Gi) structure are essentially one dimensional. Nanowires are quasi-one-dimensional materials, "their two (...) dimensions are on the nanometer scale." This one-dimensionality confers distinct electrical and optical properties. (shrink)

An increase in the surface-to- volume ratio and changes in geometry and electronic structure have a strong impact on the chemical interactions of matter, and for example, the activity of small particles changes with changes in the number of atoms (and thus the size of the particles). Unlike today's nano-transistors, which behave based on the movement of a mass of electrons in matter, new devices follow the phenomena of quantum mechanics at the nano scale, in which the discrete nature of (...) electrons cannot be ignored. By reducing all the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the transistor, the electric charge density increases in different areas of the nano-transistor , or in other words, the number of electric charges per unit area of the nano-transistor increases. (shrink)

In smart electronic nano-structures, the concept of Nano -assemblies is summed up in all the information and codes necessary to produce an entity similar to itself. We have a very small machine that knows how to produce similar to itself , which in nano science is called a "nano-assembler". It is interpreted.

Graphene nanomemories have been developed molecularly, providing excellent programmable nanoscale memory performance compared to previous graphene memory devices and a memory window. Large (12V), fast switching speed (1 microsecond), shows strong electrical reliability. Graphene molecular nanomemories show unique electronic properties, and their small dimensions, structural strength, and high performance make them a charge storage medium for Nano memory applications. We use a set of techniques involving a solution of nanoparticles, which creates a very thin layer on the target substrate and (...) is used as a sacrificial layer during the nanopatterning process. (shrink)

In electrostatics, we can use either potential energy or field energy to ensure conservation of energy. In electrodynamics, the former option is unavailable. To ensure conservation of energy, we must attribute energy to the electromagnetic field and, in particular, to electromagnetic radiation. If we adopt the standard energy density for the electromagnetic field, then potential energy seems to disappear. However, a closer look at electrodynamics shows that this conclusion actually depends on the kind of matter being considered. Although we cannot (...) get by without attributing energy to the electromagnetic field, matter may still have electromagnetic potential energy. Indeed, if we take the matter to be represented by the Dirac field, then it will possess potential energy. Thus, potential energy reappears. Upon field quantization, the potential energy of the Dirac field becomes an interaction term in the Hamiltonian operator of quantum electrodynamics. (shrink)

Hans Reichenbach’s posthumous book The Direction of Time ends somewhere between Socratic aporia and historical irony. Prompted by Feynman’s diagrammatic formulation of quantum electrodynamics, Reichenbach eventually abandoned the delicate balancing between the macroscopic foundation of the direction of time and microscopic descriptions of time order undertaken throughout the previous chapters in favor of an exclusively macroscopic theory that he had vehemently rejected in the 1920s. I analyze Reichenbach’s reasoning against the backdrop of the history of Feynman diagrams and the current (...) practice of particle physics. Building upon the debates about processes and conserved quantities between Wesley Salmon and Phil Dowe in the 1990s, and the exchange between Reichenbach and the gestalt theorist Kurt Lewin during the 1920s about topology and genidentity, I investigate whether the aporia about local time order could be avoided by following a strategy that Reichenbach adopted elsewhere in the book and develop a notion of functional genidentity that captures the practice of present-day elementary particle physics and the fact that Feynman diagrams have to be understood in the context of a complex mathematical description of scattering processes. (shrink)

We provide a suitable theoretical foundation for the notion of the quantum coherent state which describes the electrostatic field due to a static external macroscopic charge distribution introduced by the author in 1998 and use it to rederive the formulae obtained in 1998 for the inner product of a pair of such states. (We also correct an incorrect factor of 4π\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$4\pi$$\end{document} in some of those formulae.) Contrary to what one might expect, (...) this inner product is usually non-zero whenever the total charges of the two charge distributions are equal, even if the charge distributions themselves are different. We actually display two different frameworks that lead to the same inner-product formulae, in the second of which Gauss’s law only holds in expectation value. We propose an experiment capable of ruling out the latter framework. We then address the problem of finding a product picture for QED—i.e. a reformulation in which it has a total Hamiltonian, arising as a sum of a free electromagnetic Hamiltonian, a free charged-matter Hamiltonian and an interaction term, acting on a Hilbert space which is a subspace (the physical subspace) of the full tensor product of a charged-matter Hilbert space and an electromagnetic-field Hilbert space. (The traditional Coulomb gauge formulation of QED isn’t a product picture in this sense because, in it, the longitudinal part of the electric field is a function of the charged matter operators.) Motivated by the first framework for our coherent-state construction, we find such a product picture and exhibit its equivalence with Coulomb gauge QED both for a charged Dirac field and also for a system of non-relativistic charged balls. For each of these systems, in all states in the physical subspace (including the vacuum in the case of the Dirac field) the charged matter is entangled with longitudinal photons and Gauss’s law holds as an operator equation; albeit the electric field operator (and therefore also the full Hamiltonian) while self-adjoint on the physical subspace, fails to be self-adjoint on the full tensor-product Hilbert space. The inner products of our electrostatic coherent states and the product picture for QED are relevant as analogues to quantities that play a rôle in the author’s matter-gravity entanglement hypothesis. Also, the product picture provides a temporal gauge quantization of QED which appears to be free from the difficulties which plagued previous approaches to temporal-gauge quantization. (shrink)

The goal of this work is to compile the basic components for the construction of an electromagnetic field theory of consciousness that meets the standards of a fundamental theory. An essential cornerstone of the conceptual framework is the vacuum state of quantum electrodynamics which, contrary to the classical notion of the vacuum, can be viewed as a vibrant ocean of energy, termed zero-point field (ZPF). Being the fundamental substrate mediating the electromagnetic force, the ubiquitous ZPF constitutes the ultimate bedrock of (...) all electromagnetic phenomena. In particular, resonant interaction with the ZPF is critical for understanding rapidly forming, long-range coherent activity patterns that are characteristic of brain dynamics. Assuming that the entire phenomenal color palette is rooted in the vibrational spectrum of the ZPF and that each normal mode of the ZPF is associated with an elementary shade of consciousness, it stands to reason that conscious states are caused by the coupling of the brain to a particular set of normal modes selectively filtered from the full frequency spectrum of the ZPF. From this perspective, the brain is postulated to function as a resonant oscillator that couples to a specific range of ZPF modes, using these modes as a keyboard for the composition of an enormous variety of phenomenal states. Theoretical considerations suggest that the brain-ZPF interface is controlled by altering the concentrations of neurotransmitters, placing the detailed study of the neurotransmitter-ZPF interaction at the center of future research activities. (shrink)

Precision testing of the quantum electrodynamics (QED) and the standard model provides some of the most secure knowledge in the history of physics. These tests can also be used to constrain and search for new physics going beyond the standard model. We examine the evidential structure of relationships between theoretical predictions from QED, precision measurements of these phenomena, and the indirect determination of the fine structure constant. We argue that "pure QED" is no longer sufficient to predict the electron's anomalous (...) magnetic moment, and that standard model effects are needed. The details relevant to low-energy QED are robust against future theory change. (shrink)

In the absence of new physics around \ GeV, the electroweak vacuum is at best metastable. This represents a major challenge for high scale inflationary models as, during the early rapid expansion of the universe, it seems difficult to understand how the Higgs vacuum would not decay to the true lower vacuum of the theory with catastrophic consequences if inflation took place at a scale above \ GeV. In this paper we show that the non-minimal coupling of the Higgs boson (...) to curvature could solve this problem by generating a direct coupling of the Higgs boson to the inflationary potential thereby stabilizing the electroweak vacuum. For specific values of the Higgs field initial condition and of its non-minimal coupling, inflation can drive the Higgs field to the electroweak vacuum quickly during inflation. (shrink)

El anuncio en julio de 2012 de los primeros indicios experimentales sobre la existencia del bosón de Higgs, reavivó el interés del secular debate sobre el significado de conceptos como el vacío y los campos físicos. La evolución de sus interpretaciones revela mutaciones profun- das en el trasfondo filosófco de nuestra visión de la naturaleza. Especialmente por cuanto el controvertido papel de las rupturas de simetría se ha añadido a las discusiones sobre las teorías de unificación y la estructura fundamental (...) de la materia. (shrink)

The paper explores the fundamental physical principles of quantum mechanics (in fact, quantum field theory) that limit the bit rate for long distances and examines the assumption used in this exploration that losses can be ignored. Propagation of photons in optical fibers is modelled using methods of quantum electrodynamics. We define the “photon duration” as the standard deviation of the photon arrival time; we find its asymptotics for long distances and then obtain the main result of the paper: the linear (...) dependence of photon duration on the distance when losses can be ignored. This effect puts the limit to joint increasing of the photon flux and the distance from the source and it has consequences for quantum communication. Once quantum communication develops into a real technology (including essential decrease of losses in optical fibres), it would be appealing to engineers to increase both the photon flux and the distance. And here our “photon flux/distance effect” has to be taken into account. This effect also may set an additional constraint to the performance of a loophole free test of Bell’s type—to close jointly the detection and locality loopholes. (shrink)

This study shows how precise simple analytical solutions for the generalized Dirac equation with repulsive vector and attractive energy-dependent Lorentz scalar potentials, position-dependent mass potential, and a tensor interaction term can be obtained within the framework of both similarity transformation and the asymptotic iteration methods. These methods yield a significant improvement over existing approaches and provide more plausible and applicable ways in explaining the pseudospin symmetry’s breaking mechanism in nuclei.

Classical electron theory with classical electromagnetic zero-point radiation (stochastic electrodynamics) is the classical theory which most closely approximates quantum electrodynamics. Indeed, in inertial frames, there is a general connection between classical field theories with classical zero-point radiation and quantum field theories. However, this connection does not extend to noninertial frames where the time parameter is not a geodesic coordinate. Quantum field theory applies the canonical quantization procedure (depending on the local time coordinate) to a mirror-walled box, and, in general, each (...) non-inertial coordinate frame has its own vacuum state. In particular, there is a distinction between the “Minkowski vacuum” for a box at rest in an inertial frame and a “Rindler vacuum” for an accelerating box which has fixed spatial coordinates in an (accelerating) Rindler frame. In complete contrast, the spectrum of random classical zero-point radiation is based upon symmetry principles of relativistic spacetime; in empty space, the correlation functions depend upon only the geodesic separations (and their coordinate derivatives) between the spacetime points. The behavior of classical zero-point radiation in a noninertial frame is found by tensor transformations and still depends only upon the geodesic separations, now expressed in the non-inertial coordinates. It makes no difference whether a box of classical zero-point radiation is gradually or suddenly set into uniform acceleration; the radiation in the interior retains the same correlation function except for small end-point (Casimir) corrections. Thus in classical theory where zero-point radiation is defined in terms of geodesic separations, there is nothing physically comparable to the quantum distinction between the Minkowski and Rindler vacuum states. It is also noted that relativistic classical systems with internal potential energy must be spatially extended and can not be point systems. The classical analysis gives no grounds for the “heating effects of acceleration through the vacuum” which appear in the literature of quantum field theory. Thus this distinction provides (in principle) an experimental test to distinguish the two theories. (shrink)