This chapter contains sections titled: Introduction Muslim or Islamic Philosophy of History? Islamic Concept of History Development of Muslim Philosophy of History and Historiography Two Muslim Philosophers of History: Ibn Miskawayh and Ibn Khaldun Muslim Philosophy of History and Encounters with the West Conclusion References Further Reading.

This chapter contains sections titled: Background, Sources Tradition Biography Teachings Conclusions.

The methodology of applied philosophy may consist in its mode of application; or it may serve applied philosophy's purpose of speaking to practical matters. There may be no single method that is shared by all sub‐fields of applied philosophy; applied ethics, the dominant form of applied philosophy, should be thought of as neither “top‐down” nor “bottom‐up” in its methods. The use of far‐fetched examples is arguably in tension with the concerns and intended audience of applied philosophy. Finally, applied philosophers may (...) not be able to claim the status of experts; and moral expertise, in particular, is subject to moral worries. (shrink)

The political philosopher, Hannah Arendt, draws fairly well known distinctions between activities that ensure the human species' biological survival, activities that establish the enduring world of human artifice, and activities that provide those who speak and act with incentives to engage in politics.

This chapter contains sections titled: Early life Breaking with idealism The principles of mathematics The theory of descriptions Avoiding the contradiction Logical atomism Later philosophy.

This chapter contains sections titled: The Setting and Development of Neo‐Kantian Thought Windelband's Division of the Sciences: Nomothetic and Idiographic Heinrich Rickert's Theory of Historical Knowledge Cassirer's Logic of the Cultural Sciences References Further Reading.

This chapter contains sections titled: Logic and epistemology The eternity of the world Human happiness.

This chapter contains sections titled: Historical Background Problems of Definition Problems of Moral Content Problems of Method and Justification Problems of Specification Problems of Conflict and Disagreement Conclusion.

Cognitive science is the multidisciplinary scientific study of cognition and its role in intelligent agency. It examines what cognition is, what it does, and how it works.