Historically, Ehrenfest’s theorem is the first one which shows that classical physics can emerge from quantum physics as a kind of approximation. We recall the theorem in its original form, and we highlight its generalizations to the relativistic Dirac particle and to a particle with spin and izospin. We argue that apparent classicality of the macroscopic world can probably be explained within the framework of standard quantum mechanics.

We study cofinal extensions of models of arithmetic, in particular we show that some properties near to expandability are preserved under cofinal extensions.

San Tommaso d'Aquino ha trattato della legge in generale e della legge naturale in particolare in numerosi scritti, ma soprattutto nella Summa theologiae. Egli ha posto in evidenza il carattere razionale della legge: se la legge esprime un ordine dell'essere, essa non puo non essere l'espressione di un'intelligenza: „rationis est enim ordinare ad finem''. Secondo lui la legge e un comando della ragione ordinato al bene comune, promulgato da chi e incaricato di una comunita: „Quaedam rationis ordinatio ad bonum commune, (...) ab eo qui curam communitatis habet promulgata''. Questa definizione della legge si realizza, analogicamente, nei diversi tipi di legge. Nella sua definizione l'Aquinate da grande rilievo a due caratteri fondamentali della legge: la razionalita e l'universalitä. La legge e opera della ragione. Infatti la legge e una norma direttiva dell'agire umano in ordine al fine dell'uomo. Bisogna conoscere il fine e il rapporto dei mezzi al fine, in modo da scegliere i piu adatti e stabilire il miglior piano di esecuzione: e questo e compito proprio della ragione. La legge deve avere di mira il bene comune e per questo deve possedere carattere universale. II bene comune e il bene di una comunita di persone ed e quindi relative alla natura della comunita, a cui si riferisce. (shrink)

L'autorita di Agostino e la necessita di una nuova riflessione. San Anselme d'Aosta, come lo chiamano gli italiani dalla sua citta di nascita, o di Canterbury, dalla sua sede episcopale e stato chiamato "l'altro Agostino", perche il suo pensiero spesso corrisponde bene al pensiero di Sant'Agostino. Tutti e due infatti hanno dedicate molta attenzione al problema della liberta. Liberta, una parola sublime, nel cui nome sono state combattute tante battaglie e si sono accesi tanti ideali, a causa della quale l'uomo (...) e un'essere unico, e si gloria di essa come del fondamento della sua dignita. II liberalismo contemporaneo tende verso la concezione negativa della liberta che ha la sua versione odierna nel concetto della neutralita. La liberta e stata elevata nel medioevo ad altezza metafisica da Duns Scoto che partendo da essa definisce la persona "ultima solitude". L a dottrina di Agostino si fonda, piuttosto, sulla distinzione tra liberta e libero arbitrio. Agostino distingue il libero arbitrio, inteso come facolta di scelta, dalla liberta che e potere di evitare il male. II primo e una liberta minore, la seconda e la liberta maggiore e piu vera, ma entrambe possiedono una positivita; infatti la prima consente anche il "poter non peccare", la seconda consiste nel "non poter peccare". (shrink)

La dottrina sociale di s. Tommaso ha come l'oggetto non la societa, ma l'uomo che vive in societa. La fonte del pensiero tomista va ricercata nella concezione politica d'Aristotele. Secondo lui per natura l'uomo e un animale sociale e politico che vive in mezzo agli altri. L'Aquinate interpreta in senso strettissimo il note principio aristotelico della socialita naturale e politicita dell'essere umano: „Naturale autem est homini, ut sit animal sociale et politicum, in multitudine vivens, magis etiam quam omnia alia animalia, (...) quod quidem naturalis necessitas declaret". (shrink)

The article deals with the perception of the Pope John Paul II and Poland in the two speeches of the Presidents of the United States of America. The George W. Bush’s speech given on the occasion of the dedication of the Pope John Paul II Cultural Center in Washington DC on March 22, 2001 and the Donald Trump’s speech delivered in front of the Warsaw Uprising Monument on the Krasinski Square in Warsaw on July 8, 2017 were used as the (...) sources for the study. The former speech is a laudation in honor of the Pope from Poland, whose biography was considered by the 43rd President of the United States as one of the most interesting in human history. Among the most notable episodes of the pontificate, George W. Bush listed the 1979 pilgrimage to his homeland, the 1995 visit to Manila in Philippines, the unprecedented visits to a synagogue and a Muslim country, the forgiveness shown to Ali Ağca – the would-be assassin, and the visits to the United States during which the Pope from Poland reminded the people of human dignity and the virtues of a just society. The latter speech is a laudation on the spirit of the Polish nation. Donald Trump emphasized the steadfastness of the Poles in the struggle to preserve their cultural identity despite the loss of their homeland. He recalled the period of partition and extermination of the Polish nation by the German Nazis and the Soviet Communists during World War II. The 45th President of the United States reminded the world about famous Poles: Nicolaus Copernicus, Frederic Chopin, Casimir Pulaski, Thaddeus Kosciuszko and Saint John Paul II. He also spoke about the lasting ties between the Americans and the Poles and about the common values cherished on both sides of the Atlantic. On the example of social transformations in Poland and Europe initiated by John Paul II’s pilgrimage to Poland in 1979, Donald Trump emphasized the influence of faith in God on political and social transformations in the world. He also expressed hope for the survival of Western civilization based on faith in God and the preservation of family and freedom. (shrink)

We give some information about new proofs of the incompleteness theorems, found in 1990s. Some of them do not require the diagonal lemma as a method of construction of an independent statement.

Henryk Elzenberg is one of the most prominent Polish philosophers of this century. His main publications are: the brilliant Foundations of Leibniz’s Metaphysics of 1917; a philosophical diary published in 1963 as Trouble with Being; and a collection of papers Man and Value. Elzenberg’s principal field of inquiry was axiology, in which he put forward a deep and original conception of his own. That, however, remains still mostly in the form of manuscripts and lecture notes, of which we publish (...) two pieces above: a critique of the utilitarian concept of value, and an analysis of Meinong’s position on the same topic. (shrink)

Grossman’s first major, published study of Marxist economic theory was a devastating critique of Fritz Sternberg’s ambitious and long book, Imperialism. The article exposed the way Sternberg failed to grasp Marx’s method and basic economic arguments, and drew impatient revolutionary conclusions from assumptions of anti-revolutionary revisionism. It also outlined Grossman’s own recovery, restatement and elaboration of features of Marx’s economic analysis, and Lenin’s conception of workers’ revolution. This abridgement consists of the first three sections of the article. An introduction to (...) Grossman’s article is published simultaneously. (shrink)

The geography of religion is one of the younger areas of religious studies. The subject of her interests is the reciprocal ties that stand between religion and the geographical environment. On the one hand, the influence of the geographical environment on the formation of religious imaginations is investigated, and on the other hand, feedback, that is, what kind of religion does the change in the geographical environment. In addition, this area of ​​religious studies is engaged in the distribution of individual (...) religions, demographic and statistical issues, as well as analysis of the topography of holy places, problems of religious migration, pilgrimage, missions, religious tourism, etc. (shrink)

Artykuł prezentuje podstawowe założenia filozoficzno-moralne leżące u podłoża ocen działań militarnych formułowanych w obrębie katolickiej nauki społecznej. Wskazując na ciągłość nauczania Kościoła odnoszącego się do etycznego aspektu konfliktów zbrojnych oraz jego głębokie osadzenie w wielowiekowej tradycji filozofii chrześcijańskiej, autor zwraca uwagę na uwidaczniające się we współczesnym stanowisku Kościoła przesunięcie akcentu z przypisywania wartości wojnie jako takiej na uzasadnianie konieczności obrony pokoju – w określonych warunkach obejmującej również zastosowanie środków militarnych.

Crises come and go, but it is good if, from the perspective of the past, we can point to some positives of the crisis that has just passed. Indeed, in the article we first find a snapshot of the export activity of the Polish economy in recent years, a picture which is positive, despite the very serious crises in the global economy. This picture may not be complete due to the scope of the study, but it shows what is most (...) important in author opinion – our place in the international division of labor over the last 15 years. This place has steadily improved, with particularly spectacular increases in importance observed during the years of the Covid-19 pandemic crisis and after the outbreak of war in Ukraine. The second section of the article presents an analysis of agri-food exports in a broader time frame, dating back to the 2000s. It aims to highlight the rise of agri-food exports as a proportion of GDP and total exports. Equally fascinating is the geographical and commodity structure and the mportance of Polish agri-food imports in the total of those made by selected countries. As a result, an interesting picture of Polish agri-food exports appears to have emerged, allowing positive assessments to be formulated. Quite optimistic prognoses for the future are also noticeable. (shrink)

Rhymed text and movable pictures present a variety of amusing situations.

The volume collects classics of Marxist historiography of science, including a new translation of Boris Hessen's “The Social and Economic Roots of Newton's ...

The ArgumentFranz Borkenau's book,The Transition from Feudal to Modern Thought(Der Übergang vom feudalen zum bürgerlichen Weltbild[literally:The Transition from the Feudal to the Bourgeois World-Picture]), serves as background for Grossmann's study. The objective of this book was to trace the sociological origins of the mechanistic categories of modern thought as developed in the philosophy of Descartes and his successors. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, according to Borkenau, mechanistic thinking triumphed over medieval philosophy which emphasized qualitative, not quantitative considerations. This (...) transition from medieval and feudal methods of thought to modern principles is the general theme of Borkenau's book, and is traced to the social changes of this time. According to this work, the essential economic change that marked the transition from medieval to modern times was the destruction of the handicraft system and the organization of labor under one roof and under one management. The roots of the change in thought are to be sought here. With the dismemberment of the handicraft system and the division of labor into relatively unskilled, uniform, and therefore comparable activities, the conception of abstract homogeneous social labor arises. The division of the labor process into simple repeated movements permits a comparison of hours of labor. Calculation with such abstract social unities, according to Borkenau, was the source from which modern mechanistic thinking in general derived its origin.Grossmann, although he considers Borkenau's work a valuable and important contribution, does not believe that the author has achieved his purpose. First of all, he contends that the period that Borkenau describes as the period of the triumph of modern thought over medieval should not be placed at the beginning of the seventeenth century, but in the Renaissance, and that not Descartes and Hobbes but Leonardo da Vinci was the initiator of modern thought. Leonardo's theories, evolved from a study of machines, were the source of the mechanistic categories that culminated in modern thought.If Borkenau's conception as to the historical origin of these categories is incorrect in regard to time, Grossmann claims it follows that it is incorrect also in regard to the social sources to which it is ascribed. In the beginning, the factory system did not involve a division of labor into comparable homogeneous processes, but in general only united skilled handicraftsmen under one roof. The development of machinery, not the calculation with abstract hours of labor, is the immediate source of modern scientific mechanics. This goes back to the Renaissance and has relatively little to do with the original factory system that was finally superseded by the Industrial Revolution.While Borkenau, in tracing the social background of the thought of the period, relies chiefly on the conflicts and strife of political parties, Grossmann regards this as one element only in the formation of the general social situation, which in its entirety and in the interaction of its elements explains the development of modern thought. (shrink)

We give new proofs of both incompleteness theorems. We do not use the diagonalization lemma, but work with some quickly growing functions instead.

We take I.Q. tests but not Compassion Aptitude tests. Yet mind and emotions need to be seen as two different parts of the same spectrum if the battered human psyche is to be mended. Skolimowski sees the opportunity for a new order to be brought about if the Western mind can return to, then reintegrate, the spiritual.