Along with the developments in social, scientific, and technological fields, today’s conditions are constantly changing and becoming much more complex. Humans must keep pace with the rapidly changing world, meet requirements, and solve various problems encountered with minimal damage. One of the most crucial obligations is to preserve the delicate balance between nature and culture to make it sustainable for humanity. This study is carried out pursuant to semiotics with an interdisciplinary perspective dealing with the relation of culture with nature (...) and the role of humans, as a subject, in this relation regarding both natural and cultural heritages of Latmos. The study examines the subject’s acts and possible influences on nature, culture, and society in the region. It is seen that there is an uphill battle between two different subjects; the reason for this is a conflict of interest encountered on individual and social planes. On the one hand, one of the subjects is aware of the positive effects of preserving natural and cultural values on society and its future. On the other hand, another subject is unaware of all these or is aware of them but ignores natural and cultural values and destroys them for the sake of self-interest. (shrink)

According to Thagard, the behavior of practitioners of a field may also be used for demarcation between science and pseudoscience due to its social dimension in addition to the epistemic one. I defended the tendency of pseudoscientists to commit fallacies, and the number of fallacies they commit can be a secondary tool for demarcation problem and this tool is consistent with Thagardian approach. In this paper, I selected the astrology as the case and I revealed nine types of logical fallacies (...) frequently committed by astrologers while introducing their field and/or defending their claims against the scientific inquiries and refutation efforts. I also argued that recognizing these fallacies may help the audience to demarcate between the scientific and the pseudoscientific arguments. (shrink)

This article provides a reading of al-Fārābī's (d. 950) thought on the soul in the context of the theory of perfection. Although al-Fārābī's theory of the soul has been the subject of various studies and the importance of the subject of perfection in al-Fārābī's philosophy has been revealed, how this subject pervades al-Fārābī's narrative and philosophy in general has not been shown in detail through texts with a phenomenological approach. With phenomenological approach here, the article aims to analyze the problem (...) through al-Fārābī's lens in reference to his texts. This article seeks to contribute to the literature to show how the issue of perfection is embedded in the theory of the soul and the classification of sciences. For this purpose, issues such as the theory of degrees, which permeate the whole of al-Fārābī's philosophy, are also examined in the context of the idea of perfection and tajawḥur.The article's main problem is determining how al-Fārābī's approaches in the theory of the soul are shaped through the idea of perfection. In this con-text, the main argument of the article is as follows: Al-Fārābī combines the material and immaterial aspects of the soul by emphasizing the concept of substantialization (tajawḥur) in his theory of the soul and constructs a theory that should be called the dynamic theory of the soul. The claim put forward in this study is that the idea of perfection is a theory that affects the whole of al-Fārābī's philosophy and should be the basis for the interpretation of al-Fārābī's philosophy. Although this issue has been analyzed from different perspectives, this study's main problem is showing how the idea of perfection permeates the theory of the soul and how it affects al-Fārābī's preferences. In this respect, a close reading of al-Fārābī's texts on the subject has been conducted to justify this claim. While this reading is carried out in the context of the soul's relation with matter and its perfection through the sciences, the issue of happiness as the soul's ultimate goal is left out due to its complexity that would require a separate study.In this framework, the study first shows how al-Fārābī constructs the idea of substantialization (tajawḥur). Subsequently, the article focuses on the description of substantialization through the intellect. Al-Fārābī's explanations in the context of the concept of ḳuwwa are also examined in terms of the role this critical concept plays in the process of substantialization of the soul and intellect. This is because al-Fārābī interprets the Aristotelian meaning of the concept of potentiality by explaining this concept in a way that regulates the soul's transformation processes. This study emphasizes that al-Fārābī's interpretation is shaped within the framework of his dynamic theory of the soul.Al-Fārābī grounds the process of the soul's coming into existence in terms of being an intermediate being between material and immaterial existence. This justification is important in terms of observing al-Fārābī's position vis-à-vis dualist and materialist conceptions of human beings. Al-Fārābī adopts neither a fully dualist nor a fully materialist approach. The point emphasized in this study is that this approach gives al-Fārābī's theory of the soul a dynamic character. On the other hand, al-Fārābī clearly emphasizes that intellectual perfection is realized through the sciences. In this respect, the substantialization of the soul through the intellect also manifests itself as a scientific perfection. For al-Fārābī, the science of logic constitutes the dynamo of the perfection of the faculty of thinking. In this respect, al-Fārābī's classification of sciences is based on the idea of perfection. (shrink)

This article is about the place of kalām (theology) within the general structure of al-Fārābī's metaphysics. In this framework, the article consists of two parts. The first part examines the position of metaphysics within the framework of al-Fārābī's idea of perfection. In the second part, a close reading of al-Fārābī's al-Ibāna ʿan ġarażi Arisṭuṭālīs fī kitābi mā baʿda al-ṭabīʿa is made and al-Fārābī's approach to the theoretical aspect of theology within the theory of milla is analyzed. Since al-Fārābī's theories of (...) perfection and meaning are the theories that affect a major part of his philosophy, the article shows the effects of these two theories on al-Fārābī's analysis of metaphysics without examining their general position in al-Fārābī's philosophy. In this framework, the article examines the idea that al-Fārābī's metaphysics should be evaluated in view of the background of his theories of perfection and meaning, based on the secondary literature on the subject. As evidence for this claim, al-Fārābī's description of the philosophical sciences as the steps of intellectual perfection is shown in the article. The article emphasizes that al-Fārābī's evaluations of the relationship between kalām and metaphysics are based on the theory of perfection. A close reading of the relevant passages in Taḥṣīl al-saʿāda, Treatise on Intellect (Risāla fi-l ‘aql), and Kitāb al-Ḥurūf shows how al-Fārābī's theories of perfection and meaning form the background of his analysis of metaphysics through the philosopher's arguments. On the other hand, the article shows how al-Ibāna might be understood within al-Fārābī's metaphysical construct by showing the extensions of the theories of perfection and meaning in this work. For al-Fārābī, metaphysics, which constitutes the last step of intellectual perfection, is also the highest science. This process is indicated by the concept “al-naẓar al-ilāhī” (divine thinking/thought). In this framework, kalām cannot gain the title of metaphysics because it is a science that does not emerge in the course of intellectual perfection. In this article, this approach is justified by considering the relevant passages in al-Ibāna. Al-Fārābī's distinction between the science of divine oneness (tawḥīd) and metaphysics in this work has been a subject of debate among scholars. Regarding what al-Fārābī meant by the definition of universal knowledge, the article emphasizes that the relationship of metaphysics with the theories of perfection and meaning influenced al-Fārābī's approach to universal knowledge. In the last part of the article, al-Fārābī’s theory of milla is considered in the context of the theory of meaning. For this aim, the article suggests that al-Fārābī’s idea of milla as a copy or similitude of philosophy makes the science of kalām an intermediate science that acts between the verbal and the philosophical areas of meaning. (shrink)

The rule of law is politico-legal realm of the modern society that it balances human gratifications, self-respect and prerequisites of legal order, after dissolution of the traditional society. Apart from our criticisms on the capitalist society there had been an expanding development of civic virtue of the human individual since early beginning of capitalism up to the 1980’ies when idea of self respect and the legal order relatively balanced. But, after neo-liberalism, the development is retrieving to the unbridled individualism, detrimental (...) to the human virtue of all humanity. (shrink)

Jerry Fodor’s causal theory of content is a well-known naturalistic attempt purporting to show that Brentano was wrong in supposing that physical states cannot possess meaning and reference. Fodor’s theory contains two crucial elements: one is a notion of “asymmetric dependence between nomic relations,” and the other is an assumption about the nature of the “causally operative properties” involved in the causation of mental tokens. Having dealt elsewhere with the problems Fodor’s notion of asymmetric dependence poses, we show in this (...) paper a difficulty with the other element of his theory concerning what kinds of properties are the causally operative ones in the tokenings of a semantic symbol in the brain of a perceiver. After presenting this difficulty, we examine three possible responses a Fodorian might make to our criticism. (shrink)

According to Fodor, robustness of meaning is an essential aspect of intentionality, and his causal theory of content can account for it. Robustness of meaning refers to the fact that tokenings of a symbol are occasionally caused by instantiations of properties which are not expressed by the symbol. This, according to Fodor, is the source of the phenomenon of misrepresentation. We claim that Fodor’s treatment of content and misrepresentation is infected with a couple of flaws. After criticizing Fodor’s theory of (...) content, we propose a new theory of content which explains how misrepresentation is possible as a result of meaning-forming causation, and extend it to account for the property of robustness of meaning. (shrink)

Our aim in this essay is to take a look at cartoons under philosophical light. What are some of the similarities between philosophy and the art of cartooning? In what ways can cartoons be helpful to philosophy? What are some of the problems cartoons pose for philosophy? Perhaps the most basic philosophical question concerning cartoons is, “What is a cartoon?”. We argue that it is not easy to pin down necessary and sufficient conditions for something being a cartoon. We defend (...) the view that cartoons form a class whose members are interconnected with the Wittgensteinian “family resemblance” relations. We then look into the problems involved in finding a connectionist parallel-processing correlate of the Wittgensteinian notion in the context of cartoons. (shrink)

Is the societal-level of analysis sufficient today to understand the values of those in the global workforce? Or are individual-level analyses more appropriate for assessing the influence of values on ethical behaviors across country workforces? Using multi-level analyses for a 48-society sample, we test the utility of both the societal-level and individual-level dimensions of collectivism and individualism values for predicting ethical behaviors of business professionals. Our values-based behavioral analysis indicates that values at the individual-level make a more significant contribution to (...) explaining variance in ethical behaviors than do values at the societal-level. Implicitly, our findings question the soundness of using societal-level values measures. Implications for international business research are discussed. (shrink)

This article provides current Schwartz Values Survey (SVS) data from samples of business managers and professionals across 50 societies that are culturally and socioeconomically diverse. We report the society scores for SVS values dimensions for both individual- and societal-level analyses. At the individual-level, we report on the ten circumplex values sub-dimensions and two sets of values dimensions (collectivism and individualism; openness to change, conservation, self-enhancement, and self-transcendence). At the societal-level, we report on the values dimensions of embeddedness, hierarchy, mastery, affective (...) autonomy, intellectual autonomy, egalitarianism, and harmony. For each society, we report the Cronbach’s α statistics for each values dimension scale to assess their internal consistency (reliability) as well as report interrater agreement (IRA) analyses to assess the acceptability of using aggregated individual level values scores to represent country values. We also examined whether societal development level is related to systematic variation in the measurement and importance of values. Thus, the contributions of our evaluation of the SVS values dimensions are two-fold. First, we identify the SVS dimensions that have cross-culturally internally reliable structures and within-society agreement for business professionals. Second, we report the society cultural values scores developed from the twenty-first century data that can be used as macro-level predictors in multilevel and single-level international business research. (shrink)

The 19th century constitutes the most unsteady period of the Ottoman Empire on the basis of military, political and scientific senses. Although not as much as in previous centuries, respected scholars and mystics continued to be upbrought in this century. Muhammed Tevfîk Bosnevî Efendi (1866) is one of the leading scholar mystics who upbrought in the Ottoman science and wisdom climate in the aforementioned period. After he was promoted to the caliphate post in eleven sects carrying out active guidance activities (...) in Istanbul, he consented to become a devout disciple of the famous Halwati-Shabani Sheikh of the time, Kuşadalı İbrahim Efendi, and received his ijazah by completing the entire course of mystical training under his supervision. Upon the death of his sheikh, he took the position of guidance and assumed the duty of guidance for twenty years. He also adopted the understanding of ignoring the cult rituals such as the crown, cardigan, and fleece, which were the most distinctive qualities of his sheikh, and disregarded such images throughout his life. He has a deep knowledge of Islamic sciences such as fiqh, tafsir, hadith and kalam, as can be understood from the works that were written by his students in the lesson circles called Council [Majlis]. In this study, which examines the work named "Tefsîru ve'd-Duhâ li'l-Hammâmî", his hermeneutics method is discussed. At the end of the study, it is understood that he explained the Qur'an in the light of the Qur'an, hadith-i sharifs, and the words of the Companions. It is also clear that in order to consolidate the subjects, he included legends from the life of our Prophet Muhammed, Companions and Saints (Awliya). Although he interprets words, it is observed that his main priority is not words but their meaning, he focuses on verses’ messages and aimed to deliver them to the addressee. It has been determined that he preferred the explanations of the past scholars rather than interpreting the verses personally, and he referred to both the first period hermeneutics works written in Arabic and the ones written by the Ottoman scholars. (shrink)

Kastamonulu şair ve yazar Sofuzâde Mehmet Tevfik Efendi (1874-1960) edebî anlayışını, şiire ve şairliğe dair görüşlerini farklı yönleri ile ortaya koyan şiirler kaleme almıştır. Sofuzâde’nin gazel formunda kaleme alınmış, manzum poetika niteliğindeki bu şiirlerinde, şiirin özelliklerini, şairin vasıflarını ve dini-tasavvufi söylemin temellerini ortaya koyabilme gerekçesi ile bu makale kaleme alınmıştır. Bahsi geçen poetik şiirler müstakil bir biçimde, daha evvel akademik bir çalışmaya konu olmamıştır. 20. yüzyılda klasik şiir geleneği içinde, özellikle dini-tasavvufi ve hikemi tarzın bir temsilcisi olarak Sofuzâde’de varolan (...) fikri ve edebî devamlılığın ya da kırılmanın tezahürlerinin görülebilmesine yönelik gaye konunun seçilmesindeki kuvvetli saiklerdendir. Onun bahsi geçen şiirlerinden bazıları “şiirimin, şairin, sözüm ve sühan” gibi doğrudan şiiri çağrıştıran ya da “öğrensin” gibi şairliği ilan ve ispata yönelik kelimelerle müreddeftir. Bazıları ise farklı rediflerle bezenmiş olsa da mana ve kavramlar itibariyle hep şiirin etrafında dolanır. Sofuzâde’nin şair ile ilgili tanımlamalarına kimi zaman “gerçek şair”i genel manada tasvir ettiği kimi zaman da şair geçinenler/müteşairler ve bunların özelliklerine değindiği beyitlerde rastlanır. Yer yer kendi şiirini ve şairliğini de öven Sofuzâde, böylelikle şair kimdir sorusuna ayrıntılı cevaplar sunar. Sözün ve nazmın nasıl olması gerektiğine, şiirin sadece duygunun değil aynı zamanda şuurun da bir göstergesi olduğuna vurgu yapar. Ona göre şiir, endişenin (düşünce) lafza dökülmüş halidir, zekânın nişanıdır ve şuurun neticesidir. Sofuzâde sadece beş duyu ile sınırlanmış bir şuurdan bahsetmez. Şuurun ruh ve kalple irtibatına vurgu yapar ayrıca sezgiye dayalı irfanî söyleme atıfta bulunur. Onun şiirlerinin başlıca kaynağı Kur’an-ı Kerim’dir. Fatiha suresinden feyiz aldığını dile getiren şairin gayesi hakikati duyurmaktır. Bu bağlamda şiirlerini cihat ehlinin keskin kılıcına benzetir. Cenâb-ı Hakk’ın yardımı ve kalbine doğan sünuhat ile yazdığı şiirleri, bazen düşünce dünyasında anlamın ruhu olur; bazen mazlumların sesini duyurmak için tarihi birer vesika halini alır. Sûfî çehreli bir şair olarak Sofuzâde, “küntü kenzen” rivayeti ile irtibatlı bir biçimde “aşkı” şairlik için en önemli unsur olarak kabul eder çünkü aşk-ı hakikîyi bilen kişi hayatın manasını anlayacaktır. Hayat aslında “hüsn ve aşk”ın farklı hallerinin görünümleridir. Aşk bilgiyi, sezgiyi, irfanı ve marifeti arttırır. Bu nedenle aşktan nasibi olmayan şairlerin taklitten tahkîke ulaşamamış, lafızdan öze inememiş, kafiyenin büyüsü ile söylenmiş şiirlerini eleştirir. Varoluşu şiire, aşkı da bu şiirin mazmununa benzetmesi onun şiirle ilgili düşüncelerinin tasavvufi eksende nasıl şekillendiğine dair dikkat çekici bir unsur olarak belirginleşir. (shrink)

This article examines tafsir (interpretation of the Qurʾān) - translation relationship in the example of the translation of verse 184 of the Surat al-Baqara into Turkish. Undoubtedly, when the verses are translated into another language, it is necessary to reflect to translate what the first interlocutors understood from them. The fact that the rules (hukm) in some verses were repealed (naskh) or allocated (takhsis) later does not change this requirement. In verse 184 of surat al-Baqara, those who can afford to (...) fast but choose not to fast are ordered to pay ransom (fidya) for every day, that is, to pay the daily amount to feed a poor person. According to the detailed information and rumors in the tafsir literature; this rule was applied when the fast was made obligatory (fard) for the first time, and then it was abrogated. However, this practice, which was canceled for healthy and unexcused people, remained as a permission (rukhṣa) for those who were too old and sick to fast. Both the narrations conveyed from the companions (sahaba) and the general opinions of the mufassirs confirm the abrogation of this rule and that it remains a rukhṣa. The fact that the situation is described as naskh or takhsis does not make a difference in terms of transferring the verse to Turkish or another language. The verses on the subject were examined in the light of the most basic tafsir sources. To give an example that reflects the general opinion; It is stated in the thirty-five narrations reported by Tabari from the companions and tābiʿūn that the 184th verse expresses the option (takhyir) of not fasting in return for fidya for those who can fast. This option has been canceled in the next verse but it has remained for, -some people with special conditions-, as the elderly who cannot afford to fast, pregnant women and breastfeeding women who worry about harm to themselves or their childrens. According to the qirāʾa that is "وعلى الذين يُطوَّقونه", it is said that the verse is not abrogated, it is meant for old men and women. But as emphasized by Abū Ḥayyān, it is understood that this qirāʾa is not actually a qirāʾa but a kind of interpretation of the expression "وَعَلَى الَّذِينَ يُطِيقُونَهُ" in terms of rukhṣa. Therefore, the claim that it has not been repealed is probably due to the continued practice of fiqh. On the other hand, also rational evidence shows that the right to choose (takhyir), which was given initially, was later repealed. For example, in verse 184, it is stated that those who are sick and travelers should perform fasting on other days with the expression "فَمَنْ كَانَ مِنْكُمْ مَرِيضًا أَوْ عَلَى سَفَرٍ فَعِدَّةٌ مِنْ أَيَّامٍ أُخَرَ"; The same issue is stated in verse 185 with the expression "وَمَنْ كَانَ مَرِيضًا أَوْ عَلَى سَفَرٍ فَعِدَّةٌ مِنْ أَيَّامٍ أُخَرَ". The repetition in question shows that the two verses were sent not together but at different times. This state of affairs confirms that the second verse has repealed the right of choosing (takhyir) in first one. In addition, as Imam Māturīdi's determined by hit, if those who cannot endure fasting were meant in verse 184, it would be unwise to call these people at the end of the verse as "However, that you fast is better for you, if you only knew!" In the overwhelming majority of Turkish translations of the Qurʾān, it is seen that there is no emphasis on the meaning of the verse when it was first sent. Even the expression “Upon those who are able to fast...” in the verse is translated as “Upon those who aren’t able to fast...”. Whereas it is more consistent and appropriate to reflect the literal meaning of the verse in the translation and explain the situation with additional notes. In this way, it will be understood that two verses that contain the same words and come one after another are sent different times and about different things, hence the reader will be given accurate information. In the nearly thirty examples of translations in the article, it is seen that the translations belonging to Mehmet Akif and Süleyman Tevfik and the translation of the delegation chaired by Hüseyin Kazım are in full harmony with the data in tafsir literature and the general opinion of mufassirs. Rifat Börekçi, the first president of Religious Affairs of the Republic of Turkey, has criticized the translation committee headed by Hüseyin Kazım extremely harshly. Then, with the choice made by Elmalılı Hamdi, almost the direction of the wind changed and the translators could not surpass it. Although there have been some translations in line with the text of the verse, the relevant explanations of these authors reveal that they did not understand the issue in detail and did not make a conscious translation. Meantime the analysis made in the aforementioned verse example shows that reliable translations cannot be made without referring to detailed tafsir information and therefore a correct Qurʾān translation is often not possible without tafsir. (shrink)

شغلت مسألة نشأة اللغات في الفكر الإسلامي حيزاً كبيراً من الدرس والمناقشة، كان النصيب الأكبر في هذه المناقشات للأصوليين وعلماء الكلام، وابتدع المسلمون نظريتين في نشأة اللغات، النظرية الأولى تقول: بتوقيفية اللغة، ترى هذه النظرية أن اللغة توقيف من الله تعالى، أو هي إلهام هبط على الإنسان فَعُلِمَ أسماء الأشياء، وهذه النظرية قديمة جداً، فقد نادى بها الفلاسفة اليونانيون، أما النظرية الثانية فتقول: بالمواضعة ويرى أصحاب هذه النظرية أن اللغة نشأت من اتفاق الأفراد في المجتمع، وكان معظم القائلين بهذه النظرية (...) من المعتزلة الذين استمدوا أدلتهم من المنطق العقلي، وفسروا ما ورد من نصوص ليلائم اتجاههم و ينسجم مع منطقهم، وحاول بعض العلماء التوفيق بين هاتين النظريتين، فقال: إن الله عز وجل وهب الإنسان القدرة على الاصطلاح وكرمه بالآليات المناسبة لذلك، ولكن اللغة الأولى لم تكن اصطلاحية بل توقيفية بمعنى أن اللغة الأولى كانت بتعليم الله تعالى، وما كان بعدها من اللغات هو باصطلاح الإنسان ومواضعته، يقرر القاضي نظرية مختلفة فبداية يقرر أن اللغة الأولى لا بد أن تكون مواضعةً فالمواضعة عنده أسبق زماناً من التوقيف، ذلك لأن الله تعالى لا يمكن أن يخاطبنا دون أن تكون لنا لغة يمكن أن يخاطبنا بها كي نفهم مراده تعالى، إن ما تقدم من الكلام هو بالنسبة للغة الأولى، أما اللغات التي أتت بعد ذلك فإن القاضي لا يقطع فيها بشيء، فيصح أن تكون تلك اللغات قد وضعت بالتوقيف من الله تعالى، كما يصحُّ أن تكون وضعت بالتواضع والاصطلاح بين البشر، ولا دليل يرجح أيًّا من هذين الاحتمالين، ثم يتحدث القاضي عن كيفية المواضعة التي اشترطها، والتي من خلالها نستطيع فهم مراد الله تعالى، ومن الشروط التي وضعها القاضي حتى تتم المواضعة القصد للمواضعة، فلا يمكن لاسم ما أن يكون عَلَمَاً على مسمى معين إلا إن توفر شرط القصد على وضع هذا الاسم لذلك الاسم المعين، كما أن نشأت اللغة أخذت حيزاً كبيراً في كتب علم اللغة الحديث، وحاول علماء اللغة ابداع نظريات أخرى غير النظريتين السابقتين، فقرروا في نهايات القرن الثامن عشر النظرية الفطرية التي تقرر أن الفضل في نشأة اللغة الأولى يرجع إلى غريزة خاصة لدى أفراد النوع الإنساني، هذه الغريزة تحمل كل فرد منهم على التعبير عن كل مدرك حسي أو معنوي بكلمة خاصة، ومن أشهر النظريات في كتب علم اللغة الحديث نظرية المحاكاة التي تقول: إن النشأة الأولى للألفاظ كانت عن طريق تقليد الإنسان للأصوات الطبيعية التي سمعها الإنسان، واتخذ منها أسماء لمصدر هذه الأصوات، وجاء البحث مؤلفاً من مقدمة تضمنت أهمية البحث وأهم الأسئلة التي سيجيب عنها، ومن تمهيد عن حياة القاضي عبد الجبار، ثم بدأ البحث بعرض أهم النظريات التي ذكرت في نشأة اللغات سواء عند العلماء المسلمين أو عند الغربيين، ثم عرض نظرية القاضي الخاصة في هذا الموضوع ودلائله العقلية التي استدعته إلى القول بهذا الأمر، وانتهى البحث بخاتمة تضمنت أهم النتائج والتوصيات. (shrink)