In defining man, pre-Qin Confucianists first starts a discussion about the differences between man and beast. This is the Differences between Beast and Man. For the Differences between Beast and Man, pre-Qin Confucianists never analyze the differences between man and other animals from an ontological viewpoint through pure factual elements. Rather, they distinguish between man and beast from a normative viewpoint. The distinction between man and beast leads to a logical conclusion that, as man is fundamentally superior to beast, 'Man (...) is a different species from beast'. Understanding man in this way is common to all pre-Qin Confucianists, although there are some differences. After examining what humane is based on the difference between man and beast, pre-Qin Confucianists discuss the issue of human perfection with a further step. That is a question of the Differences between Sage and Selfhood with respect to how a sage is different from and the same as an ordinary person. Although Confucius states that he cannot set himself up as a sage, Mencius and Xunzi suggest a viewpoint of the Homogeneity of Sage and Selfhood that a sage and an ordinary person (or selfhood) are basically equal. This point is to highlight the universal equality of Sage and Selfhood in which a sage is no different from an ordinary person and any ordinary person can reach the level of a sage through efforts. Thus, pre-Qin Confucianists view man as a being between beast and sage, and, based on that, discuss the issue. In this context, this study intents to analyze the pre-Qin Confucianists' philosophical debate on man based on the viewpoints of the Differences between Beast and Man and the Differences between Sage and Selfhood. (shrink)

선진유가는 다양한 시도를 통해 유가의 이론적 기반을 강화하며, 이 과정에서 정감을 적극적으로 활용한다. 예의 근본이 어디에 위치하는지에 대한 문제를 탐구할 때에 선진유 가는 예의 근본이 진실한 정감에 있다고 주장한다. 예의 형식은 변할 수 있지만 그 안에 내재된 진실한 정감은 영원히 변하지 않아야 한다고 믿었기 때문이다. 나아가 선진유가는 정감의 연쇄적인 작용을 분석하며 하늘의 법칙에서부터 본성․정감․구체적인 행동까지 의 과정을 모식화하여 인간을 해석하는데 정감을 활용한다. 한편, 선진유가는 인간의 내면 에 주목하여 이상적인 정치에 관해 논의를 시도한다. 선진유가는 위정자가 도덕적 정감을 정치적 영역으로 확장시킬 수 (...) 있다면 이상적인 정치를 실현할 수 있다고 강력히 주장한다. 이는 도덕적인 정감을 기반으로 한 행동과 결정이 정치의 성패를 결정한다는 신념을 나타 내며, 정치적인 행위가 도덕적 가치와 일치할 때에만 바람직한 결과를 얻을 수 있다고 믿 은 것이다. 다시 말해 선진유가는 정감을 통해 인간의 내면을 이해하고, 이를 기반으로 한 이상적인 정치를 추구하는 철학적인 방식을 제시하고 있다. (shrink)

The philosophical pursuits of ancient civilizations, notably the Pre-Qin Chinese and Ancient Greeks, revolved around the concepts of "Dao" and "Truth" respectively. These foundational ideas not only shaped their respective cultures' views on metaphysics and ethics but also influenced their understanding of the divine and human nature. This paper examines the conceptual parallels and distinctions between "Dao" in ancient Chinese philosophy and "Truth" in ancient Greek philosophy, emphasizing their implications for religious and ethical thought. Despite significant advancements in international relations (...) theory in China since 1978, contemporary Chinese scholarship has yet to develop a comprehensive theory influenced by ancient philosophical principles. This research revisits the Pre-Qin texts, particularly focusing on the Confucian concept of "Harmony," which has perennially shaped the moral and psychological fabric of Chinese society. By comparing these ancient notions, this paper seeks to contribute to the philosophy of religion by illustrating how these classical ideas offer valuable insights into modern issues of global ethics and public mental health. (shrink)

선은 갑골문에 나타나는 글자인데 비해 악은 그보다는 후대에 만들어진 글자이다. 두 개념 모두 초기의 용법들은 도덕과 무관한 의미에서 주로 사용되었다. 선이 도덕적 의미로 사용되면서 유학적 가치들과 중첩되어지기 시작하는 것을 볼 수 있는 문헌은 『논어』이지만, 그 용례들은 매우 빈약한 편이다. 『맹자』에서도 선과 악은 도덕과 무관한 의미로 많이 사용되어지기는 했지만 도덕적 용법이 상당히 늘어났다. 특히, 맹자가 성선을 주창함으로써, 선은 본성의 발현이요, 악은 선이 실현되지 못한 결과(不善)이거나 욕구에 가려진 것(蔽)으로 정의 되게 되었다. 『순자』에서 선과 악은 성악과 예란 개념을 통해 정의된다. 인간의 본성은 이기적이어서 (...) 악으로 흐르기 쉽지만(性惡), 잘만 관리하면 사회적 선으로 연결될 수 있다. 그러한 역할을 하는 것이 예이다. 그러므로 순자에게서는 ‘예=욕망의 길러줌=욕망과 물질 간의 인위(僞)적인 균형=선’이라는 등식이 성립된다. 반면 악은 인위적 노력이 실패한 결과로서의 욕망과 물질간의 불균형이다. 그러므로 순자에게서도 악은 본래부터 존재한 것이 아니다. 맹자와 순자가 본성에 대해 상반된 견해를 주장하였고, 그에 따라 공부하는 방법이나 도덕의 정당화에서 차이가 있기는 하지만, 악이 실체가 아니라 현상(不善)이라는 점에서는 차이가 없는 것이다. 이는 비단 이 둘만의 공통점이 아니라 후대의 성리학, 나아가 대승불교와 도교에 이르기까지 공통적으로 발견되는 특징이기도 하다. (shrink)

The theory about human desire is one important component in early Confucian theory of humanity. It is worth our attention that Pre-Qin Confucians never put human desire at the absolute opposite position to the Heavenly Principle, as their successors do. Contrarily, they generally believe that the desire is the inseparable property of normal human nature, and making efforts to satisfy the human desire is reasonable. Only in terms of reducing the conflicts between human desire and the limited resources they advocate (...) a moderate abstinence. [key words] Pre-Qin Confucianism; the theory of human nature; human nature is good; human desire. (shrink)

Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, Frankfurt/M., New York, Oxford, Wien Schweizer Asiatische Studien. Monographien. Bd. 43. Herausgegeben von Robert Gassmann. This book deals with the ru, a word too often understood as a reference to 'Confucian literati'. The study consists of two parts. In the first part the author discusses the problem of the origins of the ru and presents the main hypotheses offered by modern Chinese scholars in this respect. The second part examines the status and nature of a number of (...) ru at a very important period in their history, namely the Qin dynasty and the early Han dynasty (3rd to 2nd centuries B.C.), with the interpretation of famous episodes such as the 'execution of literati' in 212, and the so-called 'victory of Confucianism' one century later. Contents: The ru - from early times to the beginning of the twentieth century - HuShi's Shuo ru - Criticism of Hu Shi's Shuo ru - After Hu Shi: variations on the wang guan shuo - Other recent theories on the origins of the ru - The Erudites (boshi) until the early Han dynasty - The execution of 212 B.C. - The ru during Emperor Gaozu's reign - The ru under Emperor Wu's rule. (shrink)

Resumo: O componente atual de educação moral nas escolas primárias enfrenta desafios significativos. O comportamento cotidiano de muitos alunos do Ensino Fundamental parece excessivamente egocêntrico e pragmático, potencialmente impactando negativamente seu crescimento futuro e desenvolvimento de caráter. Isso pode influenciar ainda mais a atmosfera social, nas próximas décadas. Assim, resumir e refletir sobre teorias e métodos na educação primária, alterar abordagens de ensino e melhorar a qualidade da educação moral são questões cruciais. A transformação na educação requer uma teoria filosófica (...) fundamental. Esta pesquisa sugere que extrair do conceito de “retidão e lucro”, enraizado no confucionismo pré-Qin, é uma referência valiosa. A perspectiva confucionista pré-Qin sobre retidão e lucro está no cerne do pensamento confucionista pré-Qin e influiu profundamente na história chinesa, por milênios. Sua contemplação sobre “retidão” e “lucro” continua a ter um impacto de longo alcance, nos tempos contemporâneos. Para fornecer uma base filosófica à teoria da educação primária, examina-se a essência do conceito confucionista pré-Qin de “retidão e lucro”. Além disso, traçar seu desenvolvimento histórico fornece insights para essa transformação. Em termos de teorias educacionais atuais, a revisão concentra-se em teorias centradas no ser humano na educação primária. Finalmente, é feita uma proposta para integrar o conceito confucionista pré-Qin de “retidão e lucro” com teorias centradas no ser humano, na educação primária, acompanhadas por estratégias de ensino correspondentes. De acordo com as descobertas desta pesquisa, os conceitos de retidão e lucro eram mutuamente exclusivos, completamente, em seus estágios iniciais. No entanto, durante a evolução de várias dinastias, os dois conceitos gradualmente ganharam elementos de apoio mútuo. Esta investigação visa a sugerir melhorias para o nível de educação moral, no ensino primário atual, e promover a herança da cultura tradicional chinesa, por meio da integração da visão confucionista pré-Qin de retidão e lucro e da teoria da educação primária orientada para as pessoas. (shrink)

본 논문은 지식 체계로서의 유가 사상이 전제하고 있는 지식론을 검토하고, 앎의 유형이라는 측면에서 유가 지식 체계의 특성을 고찰해 보는 데에 목적을 두었다. 이를 위해 ‘지식’의 사전적 정의 하에 ‘앎’ 혹은 ‘안다’는 말의 의미는 어떻게 이해되고 있는가, 『논어』에 전제되어 있는 유가 지식체계의 속성은 무엇인가, 유가 지식론은 어떻게 확장되고 또 그것은 스스로 정립한 지식론에 근거하여 타당한 지식체계인가 등의 세부 주제를 논의하고자 했다. ‘안다’는 말은 고대그리스, 라틴어, 아랍어, 독일어 등 여러 문화권에서 다양한 맥락으로 분화되어 있지만 그 중 대상에 대한 앎을 지칭하는 용어가 공통적으로 (...) 보이는데, 이는 소크라테스가 제시한 지식의 두 가지 기준, 즉 알고자 하는 대상이 ‘있는 것’이어야 하고 인식 주체의 상태가 ‘틀리지 않음’의 상태여야 한다는 것과 관련이 있었다. 이 기준을 유가 지식론에 적용하면, 『논어』의 지식론은 앎의 대상을 사람으로 상정하고 있다는 점이 뚜렷한 특징으로 드러난다. 게다가 사람은 주관을 가지고 능동적으로 생각하고 판단하며 행위한다는 점에서 사람에 대한 지식은 소크라테스가 제시한 두 가지 기준 외에 이유알기 유형의 앎이 요청되었다. 특히 이유알기는 방법알기와 대비됨으로써 그 특징이 명확하게 드러날 수 있었는데, ‘왜’의 물음을 취하는 이유알기와 ‘어떻게’의 물음을 취하는 방법알기의 결정적 차이는 지식 추구를 통해 얻게 되는 내용과 결과가 사람을 지향하는가 아닌가의 차이로 귀결되었다. 앎의 두 유형 분류는 오랜 전통에서 발견되는데, 대표적으로 ‘형이상자’와 ‘형이하자’를 각각 ‘道’와 ‘器’로 구분하는 「계사전」의 서술이 있었고, 그 외에 군자와 소인의 구분이나 大學과 小學의 분류도 이유알기와 방법알기의 맥락을 계승하는 것으로 이해될 수 있다. 결론적으로, 유가 지식론이 갖는 뚜렷한 특징은 이유알기의 유형이며, 앎의 유형 분류는 지식과 실천의 관계에 대한 오랜 논쟁을 이해하는 새로운 시각을 제시할 수 있다는 점으로 확장될 수 있었는데, 지식을 이유알기 유형으로 이해할 경우 지식과 실천 사이에 특정한 매개가 필요치 않으며, 그것은 선택과 의지의 문제라기보다는 아는가 모르는가에 의해 실천 여부가 결정되는 것으로 이해되어 지식과 실천의 굳은 결속력을 확인할 수 있었다. 이상의 논의를 통해 유가 지식 체계는 스스로 정립한 지식론에 비추어 정당하고 바른 지식체계를 구축하고 있다고 판단된다. (shrink)

이 논문은 현대인이 앓고 있는 감정 과잉의 문제에 대한 해결책을 전통적 감정 담론, 특히 풍부한 감수성을 계발하도록 하면서도 감정의 적절한 표출을 위한 조절을 강조했던 선진 시기의 유가 철학에서 참고해보고자 하는 시도이다. 이러한 연구는 덕 윤리로서 유가 윤리가 인격 수양으로 표현되는 덕 획득의 구조 내에서 감정을 어떻게 다루었는지를 체계 적으로 재구성하는 작업이다. 이러한 작업은 당연히 덕 윤리의 일반적 체계 속에서 감정이 어떤 위상을 가지고 있는지, 어떻게 교육(계발)될 수 있는지 혹은 감정의 특성을 고려할 때 교육(계발)이라는 것 자체가 가능한지, 그리고 여러 덕들의 획득 (...) 방식과 어떤 유사성이 나 차이점이 있는지를 먼저 검토하는 것으로 이루어졌다. 그리고 이것을 바탕으로 선진 유 가가 자아 수양의 방식으로 활용한, 대표적인 양식인 예를 중심으로 규칙, 감정과 습관화 라는 큰 틀에서 유가의 감정 수양 방식, 즉 감정의 습관화 방식을 재구성하였다. 이러한 검토는 감정 조절(혹은 감정 교육이나 수양)이 얼마나 복잡한 문제이고 다양한 요소들을 함께 고려하는 문제임을 알 게 해 줄 것이며 유가의 인격 수양 이론을 다시 검토하는 계기 를 제공할 것이다. (shrink)

The view of human in Confucian philosophy in Pre Qin Dynasty arose not only from the change in socio-economic conditions but also from the deterioration of social morality. Facing that situation, thipkers of this period began to study human to come up with solutions to help the rulers stabilize society. Despite the presence of past studies on the topicand views on people in Confucian philosophy during the Pre Qin period, there (xists gaps for further research. This study attempted to understand (...) through a document review and extensive in-depth research procedure the theoretical underpjnnings of the perspectives on the origin of man, on human nathře, on hụman rples and positions and on educating people in order to develop perfect people and maintain civil order in society. The methodology used was documehtation research and content analysis of the data collected. The document reséafch method was particularly helpful in investigating categorizing and analyzing physical sources, most commonly written documents in the social, public or dígital world. The study found out that the Confucianism represents a legitimate doctrine of the Pre Qin philosophy to build social stability social harmony and peace. The Confucianists of Pre Qin also advocated the need for a personal cultivation, cultivation of the body, family, country, and the whole world, and use it as the basis of the methodology for governing the country. Howeyer, for this purpose, the study recommends that people need to be educated to know the way to be human. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:Reviewed by:Images of Women in Chinese Thought and Culture: Writings from the Pre-Qin Period through the Song DynastyXiufen LuImages of Women in Chinese Thought and Culture: Writings from the Pre-Qin Period through the Song Dynasty. Edited by Robin R. Wang. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 2003. Pp. xiv + 449.Images of Women in Chinese Thought and Culture: Writings from the Pre-Qin Period through the Song Dynasty, edited by Robin R. (...) Wang, is an excellent collection of English translations from the Classical Chinese of writings on women. As the title indicates, the book starts with writings from before the founding of the Qin, China's first bureaucratic state, in 221 B.C.E., and ends with the Tang and Song dynasties (618-1279 C.E.), a period that has been considered the richest in Chinese history in terms of literature and art production.The anthology includes fifty-four selections arranged in five parts based on a conventionally accepted chronology of the texts. There is a brief introduction at the beginning of each selection that helps familiarize the reader with the texts and the historical and cultural context out of which women's issues have arisen. The first two parts include selections from oracle-bone inscriptions, the earliest Chinese writings ever discovered; texts from the major ancient philosophical schools, such as Confucianism, Daoism, Mohism, and Legalism; and folk literature together with poems by some of the best-known poets of their time. These writings not only encompass the intellectual foundations of Chinese civilization but also provide valuable sources for understanding how perceptions of gender relations have been shaped by the Chinese cosmological and philosophical view of the world. In text number 3, the Classic of Changes (Yijing), women and men are understood as the highest embodiments of yin and yang, the two fundamental forces that characterize the development of the universe. Since these forces are understood as both hierarchical—as they are manifested in the interrelation between the earth and sky—and, more importantly, complementary to each other, women's roles in family and society are thus recognized as distinct from, yet complementary to, those of men.In part 3, the reader is led through the Han (202 B.C.E.-220 C.E.), China's longest-lived dynasty. Writings from this period reveal the processes by which the ancestral wisdom, especially the Confucian Classics, were codified through government-sponsored scholarship. The writings of Dong Zhongshu (195-115 B.C.E.) and The Comprehensive Discussion in the White Tiger Hall (Baihu tong) were two of the texts responsible for the establishment of the official Confucian ideology of the Han. Texts drawn from this period also include works by Ban Zhao (45-114 C.E.), China's first and most influential female historian and scholar. Her writings were originally intended as moral guidance for women and were regarded in Chinese society as key texts in women's education up to the twentieth century.The six selections included in part 4 are comparatively less well known to English readers, except for The Ballad of Mulan, which became popular in the West after the story of Mulan was made into an animated movie in 1998. The other writings in this part have only been translated into English since the 1970s. Among them, [End Page 496] English versions of Family Instructions to the Yan Clan and Women in the Standard Histories were prepared especially for this volume. These writings reveal how Neo-Confucianism and Neo-Daoism became the principal approaches to comprehending the social reality and gender relations following the chaotic disintegration of the Han dynasty, and they help explain the increasing dominance of Confucian ideology and its implications for women.Finally, in part 5, there are included among other selections some well-crafted love stories written in the classical language by eminent men of letters and works by several great poets (both men and women) of the Tang and Song periods. In this section there are writings by some of the most familiar names of the period, such as Bojuyi (772-846 C.E.), Yuan Zhen (779-831 C.E.), and Li Qingzhao (1081-1151 C.E.). These authors have... (shrink)

It is initially odd to ask whether Confucianism is compatible with systems of law. Confucian thought has co-existed with Chinese legal systems throughout the various dynasties of China’s long history. Nevertheless, despite the extensive laws that China has boasted, traditional Chinese legal thought is not typically recognized as a genuine rule-of-law system, given its focus on moral development and the “rule of man.” In this essay, we argue that Confucianism, specifically Pre-Qin Confucianism, is compatible with the rule-of-law. (...) We examine the different models of compatibility, including “soft compatibilism” in which we examine whether abstract concepts between Confucianism and legal systems are compatible, as well as co-existing and integrating compatibilism. Co-existing compatibilism sees Confucianism and the law occupying different spheres within the same legal system while integrating compatibilism sees Confucianism and the law coming together into a new system. In this way, Confucianism offers China an alternative to liberal democratic and Marxist theories of law. (shrink)

Resumen: como la moral más importante del pueblo chino, la piedad filial es una parte importante de la cultura tradicional china y ocupa una posición importante en la historia china. El concepto de piedad filial se originó en la dinastía pre - qin, se desarrolló en las dinastías Xia y Shang y prevaleció en la dinastía Zhou Occidental. Confucio primero propuso el concepto de “piedad filial” en el confucianismo. Combinó la “piedad filial” con la “benevolencia” y enumeró el contenido específico (...) de la “piedad filial”. El pensamiento de piedad filial de Mencio también es una herencia del pensamiento de sus predecesores, que combina la piedad filial con ideas como la “teoría de la bondad sexual” y la “política del rey”. También propuso el estándar de “piedad filial”, que es un mayor desarrollo de la “piedad filial” en la dinastía pre - qin. Este artículo intenta comenzar con el pensamiento de piedad filial de algunos representantes del confucianismo pre - qin, analizar el contenido, el desarrollo y la influencia del pensamiento de piedad filial, y analizar el papel y la importancia de la “piedad filial” en la sociedad actual. (shrink)

Four important virtues of a woman in the Confucian perspective include Works (being chaste, monogamous, and a virgin when married), Comportment (beauty), Speech, and Conduct (morality, Ethics). These virtues have profoundly influenced the conception of the role of women in traditional Vietnamese culture. Excessive focus on family roles and traditional values limits women's opportunities and rights in the public, political and economic spheres. However, in recent years, Vietnam has made significant progress in realizing gender equality. Investments in education, legal rights, (...) and economic and social development have opened up many opportunities for women to participate in the public sector and contribute to the country's development. In this article, we will focus on clarifying issues such as: Presenting and analyzing four important women's virtues from the point of view of Confucianism in the Pre-Qin period; Finding answers to the questions raised and pointing out the contribution of four important women's virtues from a Confucian point of view in realizing gender equality in Vietnam. (shrink)

In Chinese pre-Qin period, Mohism was the first school that challenged Confucianism. A common view is that Mohists attacked Confucianism by proposing jian ai, often translated as “universal love,” that opposes Confucian “graded love”. The Confucian-Mohist debate on ethics is often regarded as a debate between Mohist “universal love,” on the one hand; and Confucian emphasis on family and kinship, on the other. However, it is misleading to translate jian ai as “universal love,” as it distorts our understanding (...) of the debate. The word jian in classical Chinese means “inclusive,” not “impartial”. The Jian Ai chapters in the Mozi do not object to the idea that our moral practices ought to vary according to our relationship with others and their social positions. Furthermore, Mohist jian ai was not proposed in the first instance to refute Confucian ideas. The Confucian-Mohist debate should not be understood as a battle between nepotism and excessive insistence on impartiality, because both of them advocate that we should care for people in general and that we should maintain close relational ties. (shrink)

The development of Confucianism has most frequently been divided into three periods: the classical period from Pre‐Qin to Han dynasty, the neo‐Confucian period in (Tang) Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, and contemporary new Confucianism in the 20th and 21st centuries. This chapter is devoted to the third period. If neo‐Confucianism can be seen as a Confucian response to challenges posed by Buddhism, contemporary new Confucianism is a Confucian response to the challenge posed by modern Western (...) ideology. If what is unique about the neo‐Confucian response is to provide a metaphysical foundation for or explanation of classical Confucian values, what is unique about the contemporary Confucian response is its attempt to show that traditional Confucian values and such modern Western values as rationality, modernity, science, and democracy, among others are not only compatible but can also significantly enrich each other. (shrink)

Recent interest in Confucianism has a tendency to suffer from essentialism and idealism, manifested in a variety of ways. One example is to think of Confucianism in terms of the views attributed to one representative of the tradition, such as Kongzi or Mengzi or one school or strand of the tradition, most often the strand or tradition associated with Mengzi or, in the later tradition, that formed around the commentaries and interpretation of Zhu Xi. Another such tendency is (...) to think of Confucianism in terms of its manifestations in only one country; this is almost always China for the obvious reasons that China is one of the most powerful and influential states in the world today. A third tendency is to present Confucianism in terms of only one period or moment in the tradition; for example, among ethical and political philosophers, pre-Qin Confucianism-usually taken to be the writings attributed to Kongzi, Mengzi, and, if we are lucky, Xunzi -often is taken as. (shrink)

No Matter What the original meaning of "Ru" was, looking at it from the perspective of the history of philosophy, the image of "Ru" as portrayed by other schools in the Warring States period was infused with the characteristics of Confucianism of that time. The self-understanding of Warring States Confucians expressed by their employment of the character "Ru" clearly displayed Ru's character as well as the main points of the Ru school, namely Confucianism. In particular, the words and (...) thoughts of Xunzi, the great Confucian master, on "Ru", epitomize Pre-Qin Confucian's understanding and expectations of themselves, and also reflect the Confucian new pursuit in facing the age of the uniflcation of Qin. /// 不管"儒"字在宇源上的原始意义如何，从学术史的观点来看，战国时代的 其他学派对"儒"的思想刻画，己经鲜明地呈现出儒家的思想特质:而战国儒学在 运用"儒"字上所表达的自我理解，更突出显现了"何为儒之人格，何为儒家的学 说宗旨"在当时的通行理解。尤其是，战国末期的儒学大师苟子对"儒"的理解， 作为战国时代评论各家"儒"的总结性代表，集中体现了先秦儒家的自我理解和自 我期许，同时也反映了儒家因应秦的统4 的时代即将到来的新的追求。. (shrink)

Resumen: El confucianismo y el legalismo no sólo son las dos escuelas ideológicas más influyentes de la China anterior a Qin, sino también las principales escuelas de pensamiento de la historia intelectual de la antigua China. Esto se debe a su respectiva naturaleza social y a sus valores políticos contrapuestos. En el confucianismo anterior a Qin, arraigado en la creencia en la bondad innata de la naturaleza humana, se hace mucho hincapié en la importancia de las tradiciones históricas. Promueve valores (...) como la benevolencia, la rectitud, el decoro y la sabiduría, y trata de redefinir el “rito” incorporando nuevos valores. Concede gran importancia al imperio de la virtud y aspira a alcanzar un estado de Armonía Universal. El Legalismo Pre-Qin, impulsado por la inherente inclinación humana hacia el interés propio y el beneficio personal, formula una filosofía de gobierno basada en el utilitarismo. Prioriza el presente y aboga por profundas transformaciones mediante la aplicación de una “ley” estricta para alcanzar la prosperidad nacional y la fuerza militar. Como resultado, la antigua China formó diferentes tradiciones del imperio de la virtud y la ley, sentando las bases de la naturaleza complementaria del confucianismo y el legalismo. Este artículo analiza los factores de diferenciación y el proceso de integración en la filosofía política confuciana y legalista, con el objetivo de aportar ideas para la construcción de los sistemas filosóficos políticos contemporáneos. (shrink)

As a social and political thought, communitarian ideas appeared in the Pre-Qin Confucianism. By the Song Dynasty, it had become a systematic theory, namely, the learning of the “four books.” As a social and political theory, not only can Confucian communitarianism contribute to Western liberalism, but it can also be an intellectual resource for the development of democracy in East Asian countries and regions. The future of the Confucian communitarianism lies in its critique of itself and its discourse with (...) Western liberalism, by which Confucianism evolves from communitarianism into liberalism. (shrink)

A persistent feature in Jesuit reports about the late Ming and early Qing was the notion that an enduring peace and concord pervaded the Chinese political system. Although the Jesuits did not invent this association, which was rooted in Greco-Roman historiography, the Jesuit encyclopaedist Antonio Possevino was the first to link the ‘perpetual peace’ and ‘supreme concord’ of the Chinese state to the Confucian intellectual tradition. As the Jesuits’ missionary strategy developed under the tutelage of Matteo Ricci, ‘public peace’ and (...) ‘the calm of the Republic’ came to be perceived as the ultimate purpose of the Confucian precepts and one of the hinges on which the aims of Christianity, Confucianism and natural law can be reconciled. The supreme expression of the link between Confucianism and peace can be found in the Confucius Sinarum philosophus, which presented for the first time an accessible translation of three of the four Confucian classics. Yet while retaining the view that pre-Qin Confucianism espoused peace as a central political aim, the Confucius Sinarum philosophus challenged the view that contemporary China could be regarded as a utopic actualization of Confucian peace. This paper will discuss this shift as an attempt to coopt the Chinese political experience as an argument against the pragmatic political philosophy known as ‘reason of state’, which was perceived by Jesuit thinkers as atheistic and immoral. (shrink)

In pre-Qin China, during the wrangling of the hundred schools, there was one current of thought that regarded Laozi as its founder and which, as we all know, enjoyed great influence in those days, as well as in all subsequent generations. Throughout history, this school of thought founded by Laozi has been referred to as Daoism, in the same way that the school headed by Confucius has been called Confucianism.

As a social and political thought, communitarian ideas appeared in the Pre-Qin Confucianism. By the Song Dynasty, it had become a systematic theory, namely, the learning of the “four books.” As a social and political theory, not only can Confucian communitarianism contribute to Western liberalism, but it can also be an intellectual resource for the development of democracy in East Asian countries and regions. The future of the Confucian communitarianism lies in its critique of itself and its discourse with (...) Western liberalism, by which Confucianism evolves from communitarianism into liberalism. (shrink)

No matter what the original meaning of “ Ru ” was, looking at it from the perspective of the history of philosophy, the image of “ Ru ” as portrayed by other schools in the Warring States period was infused with the characteristics of Confucianism of that time. The self-understanding of Warring States Confucians expressed by their employment of the character “ Ru ” clearly displayed Ru ’s character as well as the main points of the Ru school, namely (...) Confucianism. In particular, the words and thoughts of Xunzi, the great Confucian master, on “ Ru ”, epitomize Pre-Qin Confucian’s understanding and expectations of themselves, and also reflect the Confucian new pursuit in facing the age of the unification of Qin. (shrink)

In recent years, philosophical ideas developed during the Wei-Jin period, broadly referred to as xuanxue in Chinese and ‘Neo-Daoism’ or ‘Dark Learning’ in English, have been accorded increasing attention in academia. This article provides an introduction to some major thinkers of the Wei-Jin period, addressing both their original writings and recent scholarly interpretations. The article aims to demonstrate that many Wei-Jin period intellectuals formed their theories through reinterpreting the relationship between texts associated with Daoism and Confucianism. Thinkers of this (...) period often attempted to show how these defining ‘schools’ of pre-Qin Chinese thought did not propose theories that were fundamentally inconsistent, and that their ideas could be woven together as elements of a coherent view. This intellectual movement can thus be, and often has been, viewed as an attempt to integrate Daoism and Confucianism. However, a more nuanced reading demonstrates that these thinkers were reworking the relationship between what were seen as predominately Daoist or Confucian themes from their very foundation. Accordingly, the common description of Wei-Jin thinkers as ‘Daoist’ is decidedly incongruous. (shrink)

By examining the propositions “waiting for the proper time to act”, “keeping up with the time”, “accommodating oneself to timeliness”, and “the meaning of a timely mean”, this paper examines the relationship between the idea of time conceived of in Yizhuan 易传 (Commentaries to the Book of Changes ), Zuozhuan 左传 (Annals of Spring and Autumn with Zuo Qiuming’s Commentaries) and Guoyu 国语 (Comments on State Affairs) as well as the related thoughts of Confucianism, Daoism and the Yin-Yang School. (...) It holds that on the foundation established by its predecessors, Yizhuan elevated time to its own category and made the first steps in establishing a theoretical system for time, making an important contribution to the enrichment and deepening of philosophical thought in the pre-Qin period. (shrink)

In his most recent book, Against Individualism: A Confucian Rethinking of the Foundations of Morality, Politics, Family, and Religion, Henry Rosemont defends against those who would call his reading of Confucianism—he sees it as a type of Role Ethics—a misinterpretation. Rosemont contends that Confucian Role Ethics is important for challenging individualism, even if it is somehow unfaithful to pre-Qin texts. He writes that he could "simply re-title" his book "Role Ethics: A Different Approach to Moral Philosophy Based on a (...) Creative Misreading of Early Confucian Writings". In Confucian Propriety and Ritual Learning: A Philosophical Interpretation, Geir Sigurðsson... (shrink)

The "Philosophy of the Mind" teachings of Lu [Jiuyuan] and Wang [Yangming] represented a major school of thought in the neo-Confucianism of the Song and Ming dynasties. This school of thought can trace its sources and genealogy back to the notions of "fulfill the mind, know nature, and know Heaven" and "All Things are possessed within myself of Mencius in the pre-Qin period of Chinese philosophy, and was formed from these basic philosophical notions; further, it was a school of (...) subjective idealism unique to Chinese philosophy. It had a significant impact on the enlightenment thought both in the period between the Ming and Qing dynasties and in the modern era. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, and particularly in the last ten years, in the wake of the deepening of the studies on the scholarship of the Song and Ming periods on the part of people in our country, there has also been very great progress in the area of research of the Lu and Wang school of philosophy of the mind. In the following article, we shall attempt to discuss selectively the major developments of this school of thought. (shrink)

The purpose of this study is to identify Confucianism's theory of the public and the private by comparing and analyzing the differences between Confucius’s Confucianism, Mencius’s Confucianism, and the Zhuzixue within the framework of ‘differences in moral and political concepts.’ As a method, we adopt a method to highlight the differences in the meaning in which Confucius, Mencius, and ZhuXi explain and use ‘Ren仁’, and also analyze the causes of those differences. Rather than analyzing the various meanings (...) of Ren仁, this analysis focuses on the social context of the concept of Ren仁.BR/We can see that the concepts of morals and politics are not fixed, but that the thinker's understanding changes according to the context of the times, and the understanding of the public and the private changes accordingly.BR/ Confucius's Confucianism was in the context of an era in which moral and political concepts were separated, while Mencius's Confucianism changed within Confucian school and in the process of ideological justification by ‘all philosophers and scholars during the pre-Qin times(諸子百家)’ as the division between morals and politics became more severe, and Zhuzixue also changed in the context of Taoism or the relationship between Taoism and Buddhism at the time. The competition required a philosophical justification, and in the process, it appears that a theoretical justification for the mind and a cosmology were formed along with it. Depending on the ideological background of each Confucianism, the regulations regarding the public and the private also changed. Starting from the Confucianism of Confucius, the ConfucianismBR/of Mencius, and to the Zhuzixue, the concept of the public and the private was defined based on the social class and status and the faithful performance of Li-Yue(禮樂) appropriate to each community, and gradually internal moral principles became the concept of the public and the private. It has changed to become the standard for. (shrink)

This paper discusses the structural relationship between ideals on pleasure and pleasure as a human psychological phenomenon in Chinese thought. It describes the psychological phenomenon of pleasure, and compares different approaches by pre-Qin Confucian and Daoist scholars. It also analyzes its development in Song and Ming Confucianism. Finally, in the conclusion, the issue is transferred to a general understanding of happiness, so as to demonstrate the modern value of the classical ideological experience.

본 연구는 다산 정약용의 도덕 사상을 상제 중심적 체계가 아니라 다양한 사회적 맥락에서 의미를 획득하는 체계로 분석하고 그 토대 위에서 그의 정치 이론을 규명한다. 그러기 위해 먼저 선진 유학에서 도덕과 정치가 어떤 관계로 설명되는지, 그리고 그 관계가 어떻게 변화하는지를 추적하여 공과 사 개념을 규명한다. 이러한 선진 유학에서 도덕과 정치의 관계가 성리학에서는 그 관계가 어떻게 바뀌었는지를 분석하고 그러한 성리학적 체계를 다산 정약용이 어떻게 비판하는지를 규명한다. 우리는 성리학 체계에 대한 그의 비판에서 그가 규정하는 도덕과 정치의 관계를 확인하여, 최종적으로 오늘날 우리 민주주의 토대 (...) 위에서 그의 정치론이 어떤 의미인지 확인할 수 있을 것이다. (shrink)

In this book, the author adopts the methodology of "discussing philosophy by studying history of philosophy". The chapters in the book discuss the essential content of The Study of Renxue Ontology, Ren's development in pre-Qin (before 206BC) and Han period (206BC-220), Ren theories in Song Dynasty (960-1279) and Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). It covers topics ranging from Confucius and Mencius' classic theories to Li Zehou's ontology of emotions as well as the development of Ren in the historical context and its contemporary (...) interpretations. The book develops the theory of Ren and Taoist style of classical Confucianism while critically incorporating modern Chinese philosophical ontology. The resulting philosophical construction incorporates classical Confucian Ren theory and classical Confucian Ren theory and the continuation of and responses to the arguments of modern Chinese philosophy, thus offering a comprehensive and innovative coverage of contemporary Chinese Confucianism. The book combines Chinese contemporary cultural heritage and creative development to promote contemporary Confucianism and harmony between China and the world. (shrink)

The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Philosophy is a collection of essays on important texts and figures in the history of Chinese thought. The essays cover both well-known texts such as the Analects and the Zhuangzi as well as many of the lesser-known thinkers in the classical and post-classical Chinese tradition. Most of the chapters focus on thinkers or texts in one of three important historical movements: Classical ("pre-Qin") Chinese philosophy, Chinese Buddhism, and the Confucian response to Buddhism ("neo-Confucianism" broadly (...) construed). (shrink)

Little is known about the Korean Peninsula before 12 th century, due to which potentially biased assessments of its social, cultural, and political history exist. This study attempted to unearth the history of the Korean Peninsula since the late 10th century through the Buddhist inscriptions. These inscriptions unveil the authentic social environment, religious beliefs, and political ecology of late Silla and delve into the political motives and life philosophies of Silla scholars who studied the Tang Dynasty, especially their approach of (...) 'interpreting Buddhism through Confucianism'. Based on empirical research grounded in documentary evidence, combined with literary-historical methods, this study examined the inscriptions of two great Silla scholars Choi Chi-Won and Choi Eun-Wee. Their works predominantly feature Confucian thought within Buddhist narratives. Politically, they used Confucian principles as the foundation for governance, interpreting them through Buddhist concepts to enlighten the masses and strengthen dynastic rule. Ideologically, while Choi Chi-Won fully implemented Confucian logic, Choi Eun-Wee demonstrated a stronger Buddhist inclination. This research enriches the understanding of the history, culture, and society of the Korean Peninsula, highlighting the significant role of blending Confucian and Buddhist elements in shaping its social and political structures. (shrink)

The transmitted Xunzi consists of thirty-two chapters. The book criticizes all philosophers of the pre-Qin era, but thereby it also assimilates their thought. The Xunzi is eclectic, to the extent that there was no school of thought that it does not include. In scholarly circles, it is generally believed that Xunzi was the most prominent Confucian scholar of the final years of the Warring States period. At the same time, it is commonly acknowledged that the Confucianism of Xunzi was (...) different from that of Confucius or Mencius. What brought about this change in Confucianism? When we analyze Xunzi from the viewpoint of the Daoist philosophy of Huang-Lao, it is not difficult to notice that a large part of Xunzi's thought originates in Huang-Lao—that is, in the philosophy of the silk manuscript Four Canons of the Yellow Emperor. The discovery of this manuscript thus helped to find the sequence of ideas leading to the change in Confucianism. (shrink)

The research concept of the "regionalization of Confucianism" has been extracted as an "ideal type." It can be summarized approximately under the dual aspects of premodern intellectuals as "using the Way to oppose power" and "using the Way to supplement power." At the same time, the process of the "regionalization of Confucian learning" was complete. This created positions for spatially mobile intellectuals both within the professional bureaucratic class and in the class of popular gentry scholars . Thus relief is (...) provided for the worrying situation of the split between the "transmission of the Way" and the "transmission of control" that has been a perplexing matter since pre-Qin times. (shrink)

This paper compares criticisms of Singapore’s meritocracy, especially against its impact on income disparities and class divisions, with Michael Sandel’s critique of the meritocratic ethic in the United States. Despite significant differences in their history and politics, meritocracy has similar dysfunctions in both societies, allowing us to draw theoretical conclusions about meritocracy as an ideal of governance. It then contrasts Sandel’s communitarian critique of meritocracy with recent Confucian promotion of political meritocracy and meritocratic justice and argues that the Confucian principle (...) of “promoting the virtuous and talented” is different from the contemporary conception of meritocracy. Textual evidence indicates that a Confucian understanding of “merit” is contrary to the technocratic expertise of contemporary meritocracies. Furthermore, pre-Qin Confucian texts do not support a conception of justice that emphasizes individual desert; they address distributive problems from the perspective of needs and sustaining social relations. The texts also support limiting the reign of merit when it results in inequalities that cause suffering, inhibit personal cultivation of some groups, or undermine social relations. The paper concludes with an assessment of Singapore’s on-going attempts to improve its meritocracy from a Confucian perspective. (shrink)

By analyzing Zhu Xi and Zhang Zai’s three representative explanatory paradigms—that of Feng Youlan, Mou Zongsan and Zhang Dainian, the paper tries to show that studying Chinese philosophy in a Western way and emphasizing logical consistency will unavoidably lead to the defects of simplicity and partiality. In addition to Buddhism and Daoism, Song-Ming philosophy had also absorbed thoughts from the Pre-Qin, Han, Wei and Jin dynasties. The existence of multiple philosophical thoughts and their new synthesis lead to internal contradictions in (...) Song-Ming philosophy and Li Xue 理学 (Neo-Confucianism in the Song and Ming dynasties). The contradiction between the doctrine of tiandao 天道 (the way in which the world runs) and that of xinxing 心性 (mind and human nature) was even sharper. Li Xue and Xin Xue also overlapped one another. The transition from the doctrine of tiandao to that of xinxing was a long journey. It was begun by Zhu Xi in his later years, and was finally completed by Wang Yangming. Unveiling the complexity and special characteristics of Song-Ming philosophy is a task for scholars on the history of Chinese philosophy. (shrink)

Focusing on early Chinese ethical and political thought across multiple schools and thinkers, this book presents a comprehensive overview of the research being done in Chinese comparative ethics and political philosophy. In addition to chapters on Chinese comparative and interpretative thought, The Bloomsbury Research Handbook of Early Chinese Ethics and Political Philosophy brings early Chinese ethics and political philosophy into conversation with Western and Indian Philosophy, as well as Western Theology. Contributors discuss numerous texts and schools in Pre-Qin and Han (...) Philosophy, including Confucianism, Daoism, Mohism, the Xunzi, the Liyun, and the Zhuangzi. The volume also shows how early Chinese ethical and political theories can be used to contextualise contemporary philosophical issues, such as metaethics, human rights, emotions, and the connection between ethics and metaphysics. The Bloomsbury Research Handbook of Early Chinese Ethics and Political Philosophy is an ideal resource for undergraduate and postgraduate students encountering early Chinese ethics and political philosophy for the first time. (shrink)

This volume of new essays is the first English-language anthology devoted to Chinese metaphysics. The essays explore the key themes of Chinese philosophy, from pre-Qin to modern times, starting with important concepts such as yin-yang and qi and taking the reader through the major periods in Chinese thought - from the Classical period, through Chinese Buddhism and Neo-Confucianism, into the twentieth-century philosophy of Xiong Shili. They explore the major traditions within Chinese philosophy, including Daoism and Mohism, and a broad (...) range of metaphysical topics, including monism, theories of individuation, and the relationship between reality and falsehood. The volume will be a valuable resource for upper-level students and scholars of metaphysics, Chinese philosophy, or comparative philosophy, and with its rich insights into the ethical, social and political dimensions of Chinese society, it will also interest students of Asian studies and Chinese intellectual history. (shrink)

China's traditional religious music is deeply rooted in the folk life and labor. Studying the influence of Confucian music aesthetics on ancient religious music and the establishment of modern music aesthetics has an important influence and the significance of learning from it. Studying the music aesthetics of Confucianism in the pre-Qin period can scientifically inherit and carry forward the traditional ritual and music civilization, combine the essence of China's traditional religious music aesthetics with reality, and explore the music theory (...) that meets the needs of today and can promote the healthy development of society. As the most popular and in-depth art form, music plays an inestimable role in the growth of contemporary college students. Firstly, this paper expounds the relationship between Confucian music aesthetics and China's ancient traditional religious music art and puts forward that we should draw nutrition from China's ancient and profound culture to improve the artistic quality of contemporary college students. Then, from the angle of ethics, it explains the deep connotation of Pre-Qin Confucian musical aesthetics, and tries to sort out its ideological system logically, hoping to expand the research of Pre-Qin Confucian musical aesthetics. (shrink)

Yuejiao was the primary form of education ever since the time of Emperors Yao and Shun. This tradition of valuing Yue over Li lasted till the Three Dynasties period. After the Spring and Autumn Period, Lijiao became the dominant form, but it still consisted of a lot of yue. Seeing the declining of this tradition, Confucius claimed to “follow upon Zhou”. That is, he wanted to recover and inherit this ideology that engages primarily in music cultivation supplemented by ritual normalization. (...) His statement: “Let a man be first incited by the Songs, then given a firm footing by the study of ritual, and finally perfected by music,” also shows his emphasis on Yue. More proofs can be found in Confucian classics such as Analects and the Record of Rites, in which discourses on/ about beauty and goodness are characterized by the juxtaposition of Li and Yue to serve a higher purpose for the pre-Qin Confucians. However, this ideology was not inherited by later Confucians. And the consequence is with the increasing status and impact of Confucianism in China in the past 2500 years, such a tradition of valuing Yue over Li gradually turned into a tradition of valuing Li over Yue. This, however, is inconsistent with both Confucius’ ideology of Li and Yue and the real characteristic of Chinese cultural tradition. (shrink)

There is a view that Ruists never put much emphasis on qing and even saw it in a negative light. This is perhaps a misunderstanding, especially in regard to pre-Qin Ruism. In the Guodian Xing zi ming chu, the passage "dao begins in qing" (dao shi yu qing) plays an important role in our understanding of the pre-Qin notion of qing. This article concentrates on the "theory of qing" in both pre-Qin Ruism and Daoism and attempts a philosophical interpretation of (...) "dao begins in qing," and in the process offers philosophical interpretations of a number of important notions. (shrink)