Parce que, perché, porque dans les langues romanes médiévales : l’utilité des études sur corpusNous proposons ici une réflexion sur l’utilité du corpus pour les linguistes, diachroniciens en particulier. Afin de montrer que le corpus est le complément idéal des outils traditionnels de la philologie (grammaires et dictionnaires de référence), nous étudions les conjonctions de subordination par / por ce que, perché et porque en français, italien et espagnol médiévaux, en deux temps : d’abord à partir des (...) outils philologiques, puis avec une étude sur corpus. Cette dernière nous permet d’émettre une hypothèse sur les différences observées dans le comportement des trois conjonctions, à savoir les emplois intersubjectifs de perché et porque et l’absence de tels emplois pour par / por ce que. (shrink)

Parce que, perché, porque dans les langues romanes médiévales : l’utilité des études sur corpusNous proposons ici une réflexion sur l’utilité du corpus pour les linguistes, diachroniciens en particulier. Afin de montrer que le corpus est le complément idéal des outils traditionnels de la philologie (grammaires et dictionnaires de référence), nous étudions les conjonctions de subordination par / por ce que, perché et porque en français, italien et espagnol médiévaux, en deux temps : d’abord à partir des (...) outils philologiques, puis avec une étude sur corpus. Cette dernière nous permet d’émettre une hypothèse sur les différences observées dans le comportement des trois conjonctions, à savoir les emplois intersubjectifs de perché et porque et l’absence de tels emplois pour par / por ce que. (shrink)

Dans notre étude, nous poursuivons les analyses portant sur la classe des adverbes roumains que nous avons menées déjà depuis longtemps, en nous proposant de relever des aspects particuliers ayant trait à cette partie de discours. L’intérêt envers le roumain se justifie par le fait que cet idiome s’est avéré à maintes reprises très conservateur par rapport au latin, à cause de son isolement du continuum roman. Essentiellement, il s’agit de nuancer et de souligner certains aspects méconnus, liés aux (...) ainsi-dénommés adverbes-adjectifs roumains. À l’appui de notre investigation, nous exploitons un corpus formé de textes datant du XVIe siècle (Corpus CAR.XVI) qui sont largement valorisés en grammaire diachronique roumaine et, récemment, en linguistique romane.Le type d’adverbes mentionné ne caractérise pas seulement le roumain car il est aussi attesté sporadiquement dans les autres langues romanes et généralement dans quelques dialectes du complexe linguistique italo-roman.L’interprétation des faits de langue sera faite en prenant en compte plusieurs perspectives, en particulier les perspectives étymologique, quantitative et fonctionnelle, ce qui assure une meilleure compréhension et facilite une analyse appropriée, complexe et quasi-complète, à la fois. (shrink)

Le corpus PhraséoRoChe se centre sur le roman de chevalerie de langue française écrit en prose. Il rassemble des textes issus d’œuvres produites entre le XIIIe siècle et le XVIIe siècle, période bornée par la naissance et la disparition de ce genre textuel. Pour permettre des interrogations par le lecteur d’aujourd’hui d’un corpus outillé embrassant une diachronie aussi longue, il faut faire des choix concernant l’évolution de la langue, non seulement en traitant le décalage entre le français contemporain (...) et la langue des textes retenus mais aussi en faisant face aux difficultés liées à l’hétérogénéité de l’ancien français, du moyen français et du français préclassique. Quels choix méthodologiques peuvent être pertinents en vue de l’objectif défini, à savoir une exploitation de type linguistique, stylistique ou littéraire? Les collaborateurs du projet se sont heurtés à la triple difficulté de rester fidèles aux textes, d’intégrer la diversité des pratiques éditoriales des chercheurs selon les étapes de l’histoire du français et d’unifier le plus possible les principes de traitement pour faciliter la réception actuelle. Le présent article rend compte des deux volets de l’opération : la sélection et la transcription d’un ensemble de 40 textes, d’abord, et l’annotation au moyen de balises structurelles, d’étiquettes lexicales et d’étiquettes morphosyntaxiques, ensuite. (shrink)

Cet article présente les solutions utilisées pour le Corpus électronique des textes polonais des 17e et 18e siècles afin d’adapter son jeu de balises grammaticales à l’évolution du système morphologique qui a eu lieu au cours de la période. Les 17e et 18e siècles ont été marqués en effet par la formation d’une nouvelle catégorie grammaticale, appelée « masculine-personality » (Pl. *męskoosobowość*). Cette époque marque une transition de l’état ancien à l’état moderne et se caractérise par une variation significative (...) des terminaisons des formes plurielles N, A et V des noms masculins animés à cette époque. Par conséquent, le jeu de balises utilisé pour annoter le corpus, qui a été créé à l’origine pour le polonais moderne, a dû être légèrement modifié à cet égard. La deuxième partie de l’article décrit les recherches menées à l’aide de ce système d’annotation, qui ont montré que la différenciation des terminaisons flexionnelles des noms masculins personnels et impersonnels en polonais était déjà avancée au 17e siècle et presque achevée à la fin du 18e siècle. (shrink)

Cet article présente et discute la méthodologie de construction d’un corpus plurilingue en diachronie longue (1681-1914). Puisqu’il n’existait pas de corpus alsacien significatif, un important travail de construction d’un corpus significatif a été mené afin de constituer un corpus documentant les contacts linguistiques dans les écrits des locuteurs-scripteurs alsaciens. Cette tâche a présenté un certain nombre de défis méthodologiques causés par le contact des langues, la variation sociolinguistique et diachronique, le manque de sources primaires et (...) de documents numérisés. Parmi ces défis entrent aussi en compte la complexité du contexte historico-politico-sociolinguistique et les rapports entre oralité et scripturalité. (shrink)

David Piché | : Problème majeur dans l’histoire de l’ontologie, la question de la cause de l’individuation se pose, notamment, à tout lecteur de l’Isagoge de Porphyre. En dépit de son importance historique, aucune étude n’a été consacrée spécifiquement au traitement que ce problème a reçu de la part de ceux qui furent à l’avant-garde de la réception du péripatétisme gréco-arabe dans l’Occident latin, à savoir les philosophes qui oeuvrèrent à la Faculté des arts de l’Université de Paris entre (...) 1230 et 1260. Cet article entend remédier à cette lacune en offrant la première traduction en langue moderne — elle-même réalisée principalement à partir des manuscrits des originaux latins — d’extraits pertinents de Commentaires isagogiques émanant de figures significatives de ce milieu. Ces textes traduits et annotés sont précédés d’une étude qui en dégage les thèses essentielles après avoir posé les termes du problème de l’individuation tel qu’il se pose dans le cadre épistémique que dessine l’opuscule de Porphyre. | : A major problem in the history of ontology, the question of the cause of individuation comes across any reader of Porphyry’s Isagoge. Despite its historical importance, no study has been devoted specifically to the treatment that this problem has received on the part of those who were at the forefront of the reception of the Graeco-Arabic Peripatetic Corpus in the Latin West, namely the philosophers who taught at the Parisian Faculty of arts between 1230 and 1260. This article intends to fill this gap by offering the first translation into French — translation made mainly from manuscripts of the original Latin texts — of relevant excerpts from Isagoge Commentaries written by significant masters belonging to that milieu. These translated and annotated texts are preceded by a study that expounds their essential theses after having spelled out the terms of the problem of individuation as it arises within the epistemic framework of Porphyry’s Isagoge. (shrink)

Dans le cadre de la construction du corpus PhraseoRoChe, un corpus diachronique rassemblant des romans de chevalerie du 13e au 17e siècle, cet article s’intéresse aux performances de différents analyseurs (étiqueteurs, lemmatiseurs, parseurs en dépendances) entrainés sur des états de langue connexes allant de l’ancien français au moyen français et au français moderne. Nous étudions ainsi la possibilité d’étendre ces analyseurs au-delà des états de langues précis sur lesquels ils ont été entrainés, en s’appuyant notamment sur les (...) divergences entre analyseurs pour identifier les annotations les moins fiables, et ainsi prioriser les interventions manuelles de correction / validation des annotations automatiques. Nous étudions également les possibilités offertes par un traitement superficiel de modernisation graphique pour tirer parti d’un analyseur moderne appliqué à des états de langue anciens. (shrink)

Dans cet ouvrage, qui fut à l'origine une thèse universitaire, « Tout a été fait pour faciliter la lecture par les non-hellénistes » déclare l'auteure dans l'introduction (p. 17). Pari tenu! Cette étude, très savante, très structurée, écrite dans une langue limpide et élégante est d'une lecture si facile et si plaisante qu'elle vous donne la sensation fort agréable de partager son intelligence. Le corpus très homogène de Sophie Lalanne est composé de cinq romans, Callirhoé de Chariton d'Aphr...

Le but de cet article est double. Il s'agit d'une part de donner une représentation des verbes trilitères (i.e. comportant trois consonnes, autrement dit les verbes de forme CvCvC) du somali qui rend compte de l'ensemble de leurs propriétés. D'autre part, au travers de cet exemple d'analyse, je m'attache à discuter du rapport qu'entretient le phonologue avec les corpus, en particulier, leur constitution, leur exploitation, l'appréhension et la résolution des contre-exemples ; on verra aussi que l'analyse proposée (comportement des (...) verbes [CvCvC] du somali) ainsi que ses dividendes, capitaux pour la compréhension de la phonologie de cette langue, auraient été impossibles à obtenir ou du moins non crédibles sans l'utilisation de l'outil informatique. Dans le dernier paragraphe seront discutés les problèmes que posent la constitution de corpus électroniques ainsi que leur exploitation automatique. (shrink)

Le livre édité par Tommaso Raso et Héliana Mello est une contribution fondamentale à la recherche sur les corpus oraux. Il rassemble les contributions majeures données lors d’un colloque international au Brésil, à Belo Horizonte, en février et mars 2012, organisé par le « Gruppo di Studio sulla Comunicazione Parlata », qui est un groupe de recherche de la Société de Linguistique Italienne. Les langues appréhendées sont diverses : l’anglais, trois langues romanes (portugais brésilien, français...

Cet article propose un tour d’horizon de différents types de biais que l’on peut rencontrer dans les études basées sur l’annotation de corpus vidéo de langue des signes. En tâchant de situer objectivement les choix effectués et les biais potentiels à chaque étape, nous décrivons les méthodologies que nous avons mises en place dans trois études, portant respectivement sur la synchronisation des composantes corporelles, le mouvement des sourcils et les clignements des yeux, puis la coarticulation.

L’article présente les premiers résultats de l’analyse de la plus récente version des n-grammes de Google italiens et français (GN, 2020), dans le cadre d’un projet qui vise à construire, à partir des données brutes, un ensemble de dictionnaires électroniques disponibles en libre accès qui faciliteraient l’utilisation des GN pour la recherche diachronique en morphologie lexicale. L’analyse de dizaines de millions de n-grammes révèle que les GN italiens et français contiennent respectivement 2,7 et 3,7 millions de formes de mots uniques (...) avec l’information sur leur fréquence dans les livres publiés, en fonction de l’année de publication du livre correspondant sur une période d’environ 500 ans. L’article décrit également la procédure d’extraction des données concernant les mots complexes dont les composants sont écrits séparément. (shrink)

Alors que toutes les langues romanes connaissent les deux types de topicalisation à gauche : le topique suspendu (HT, dans les propositions principales) et la dislocation gauche (LD, dans les propositions principales et les subordonnées), quelques dialectes occitans (et peut-être quelques dialectes italiens) se distinguent en présentant aussi un topique suspendu enchâssé. Cet article met en évidence les difficultés soulevées par les analyses antérieures, notamment celle de Sauzet (1989) qui suppose qu’un rôle prédicatif spécifique légitime ce type de topique (...) et celle de Lahne (2005) qui postule que le topique n’est pas enchâssé. Nous montrons que, en Occitan, la tête fonctionnelle la plus à gauche (FORCE° de Rizzi 1997) porte un trait (déclaratif) fort qui attire le DP topicalisé dans la périphérie gauche de la proposition. La force de ce trait est ainsi paramétrée, ce qui permet de faire des prédictions typologiques intéressantes. (shrink)

Vers une stylistique des imaginaires langagiers Si la description du matériau langagier mis en jeu dans tel ou tel corpus se situe à la base de toute analyse stylistique, la visée ultime de l’opération est d’approcher un style, catégorie littéraire éminemment polysémique. L’analyse stylistique, en effet, peut avoir pour finalité de dégager les habitudes langagières de tel auteur ; elle peut aussi vouloir évaluer cette pratique en l’historicisant – ne serait-ce que parce que depuis le milieu du xixe siècle, (...) la langue littéraire présente des formes particulières, et que la conception du style, dès lors, s’en trouve modifiée. C’est là le postulat méthodologique dont on partira. Le corollaire d’une telle perspective est qu’une œuvre, quelle qu’elle soit, reflète un imaginaire langagier inscrit dans tel ou tel « moment » de l’histoire littéraire. La démarche ne peut être que comparative ; elle suppose donc la constitution d’un corpus pluriel dont la pertinence est définie par une proximité d’effets, qui reposent eux-mêmes sur la récurrence de « patrons » stylistiques. Mais afin de ne pas fausser le jeu, il faut nécessairement solliciter des corpus périphériques (et on se demandera comment les définir), permettant de mettre en évidence des ressemblances et des filiations aussi bien que des divergences : ce n’est qu’ainsi que l’on rendra compte de la complexité mais aussi de l’organisation du champ littéraire à un moment donné. C’est cette méthode d’analyse stylistique que l’on essaie de mettre en œuvre à partir des romans de Samuel Beckett, Robert Pinget et Claude Simon parus dans les années 1950. (shrink)

En soixante ans, les technologies relatives à l’automatisation de la langue ont été très souvent décriées et moquées. Elles connaissent depuis peu un essor considérable et leur utilisation tend à se généraliser, tout au moins pour quelques couples de langues privilégiées. Nous dresserons un état de l’art de la traduction automatisée, évaluerons ses enjeux et nous nous attacherons à décrire le déséquilibre géolinguistique qui règne dans ce domaine. Nous analyserons ensuite plus précisément le cas des langues romanes. Si (...) les pays latins se sont lancés relativement tôt dans la course technologique, leurs systèmes se concentraient surtout sur la traduction à partir de l’anglais et vers l’anglais. Ils commencent aujourd’hui à développer des outils de traduction entre langues romanes, tirant parti de leur proximité linguistique, mais les obstacles à franchir sont encore nombreux pour équiper convenablement toutes les langues.In the last 60 years, automated language technologies have very often been mocked and derided. Recently, however, they have begun to take off and are coming into widespread use, at least for the most common language pairs. This article reports on the state-of-the-art of automated translation, investigates the issues and describes the geo-linguistic imbalance characterising the field. We then analyse the case of the Romance languages in particular. Although the Latin countries joined the technological race at fairly early stage, their systems focused mainly on translating from and into English. They are now beginning to develop tools for translating between Romance languages, drawing on their linguistic proximity, but there are still a great many hurdles to overcome before each of these languages can be effectively processed. (shrink)

At first blush, the idea that fictions play a role in science seems to be off the mark. Realists and antirealists alike believe that science instructs us about how the world is. Fiction not only seems to play no role in such an endeavour; it seems to detract from it. The aims of science and fiction seem to be diametrically opposed and a view amalgamating the two rightly seems to be the cause of discomfort and concern.

Why do systems prepared in a non-equilibrium state approach, and eventually reach, equilibrium? An important contemporary version of the Boltzmannian approach to statistical mechanics answers this question by an appeal to the notion of typicality. The problem with this approach is that it comes in different versions, which are, however, not recognised as such, much less clearly distinguished, and we often find different arguments pursued side by side. The aim of this paper is to disentangle different versions of typicality-based explanations (...) of thermodynamic behaviour and evaluate their respective success. My conclusion will be that the boldest version fails for technical reasons, while more prudent versions leave unanswered essential questions. (shrink)

Eliminativists about free will and moral responsibility argue that no action can be free and responsible because in order to be actions, our movements must be caused by features of our character or will. However, either the will is constituted by states that are themselves produced by events outside our control, or it is constituted by our own choices, which must themselves stem from our will in order to be up to us. Thus, any attempt to account for freedom and (...) responsibility seems to either run into an infinite regress or leave the ultimate causes of our actions up to something outside our agency. Compatibilists attempt to respond to this challenge by arguing that we need not have control over our will in order to be free, but only to have control of our actions on the basis of our will. Libertarians, on the other hand, argue that we can be free so long as our choices are caused indeterministically and chosen for reasons. -/- I argue that both approaches ultimately leave the constitution of the will up to non-agential factors because the dominant accounts view all choices—including those that constitute the will—as essentially events caused by other events, leaving no function for agents to perform. In response, I argue that we can avoid eliminativism if we take the will to be irreducible to events such as choices and also our own. Through an examination of recent non-volitionist approaches that allow for responsibility for non-deliberative action, I argue that such accounts presuppose a Heideggerian view of agency on which all action and deliberation occur on the basis of an underlying projection of possibilities into which we are thrown. Heidegger’s account of temporality in turn allows us to own ourselves in the present by retrieving our past as always already chosen in light of our self-projection into the future. Agents are thus self-constituting beings capable of owning themselves and independent of causation by prior events. Freedom and responsibility are therefore irreducible features of agency. (shrink)

Author: Godlewski Roman P. Title: SOURCES OF DUALISM OF CONTENT AND CONCEPTUAL SCHEME I.E. ON SOME FAULTS OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY (Źródła dualizmu schematu pojęciowego i treści, czyli o kilku błędach filozofii zachodniej. Uwagi z zakresu filozofii analitycznej) Source: Filo-Sofija year: 2005, vol:.5, number: 2005/1, pages: 243-258 Keywords: DUALISM OF CONTENT AND CONCEPTUAL SCHEME, RORTY, KMITA, WHORF Discipline: PHILOSOPHY Language: POLISH Document type: ARTICLE Publication order reference (Primary author’s office address): E-mail: www:The aim in the article is to explain why we (...) fall in dualism of content and conceptual scheme. The dualism says that there is a relation between languages and the world (meant as an object). The first cause is mechanistic way of thinking which characterizes Indoeuropean mind. The way on thinking is to treat every object as if it had formal properties of physical objects. The term is taken from Whorf’s works. Concequences of mechanistic thinking for research in abstract sciences is considered. It is demonstrated how mechanistic thinking lets to pass from belief that there are some relations between expressions of a language and elements of the world to belief that there is a relation between the language as a whole and the whole world. The fallowing causes of the dualism are also considered: 1. literal understanding of metaphores used in philosophy of language, 2. wrong understanding of suppositions, 4. attempts to explain language in natural terms, e.g. causal theory of meaning. (shrink)

In Spain, the state of alarm declared on March 14, 2020 caused changes in the population in relation to the habits of physical activity and sports practice. This study analyzed what motivational variables predicted the self-efficacy and commitment to sports practice, as well as the differences according to gender, during lockdown and the progressive de-escalation caused by COVID-19, using the theory of self-determination as a theoretical framework. The study sample was conformed of 179 subjects between 18 and 65 years of (...) age. The Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire, the Psychological Need Satisfaction in Exercise Scale, the Physical Activity Self-Efficacy scale, and the Sport Commitment scale were applied. The most relevant results have showed significant differences in favor of the male gender in terms of levels of controlled motivation and amotivation, as well as higher levels of self-efficacy and basic psychological need of autonomy. Furthermore, the regression analysis has revealed that self-efficacy and current commitment to sports practice were explained by a variance of 57 and 64%, respectively, due to autonomous motivation and the basic psychological need of competence. Therefore, the basic psychological need of competence should be fostered in order to increase the levels of self-determined motivation, self-efficacy, and commitment to sports practice of the population. (shrink)

The article deals that biblical theology of Еmerging church focused primarily on the issues of the role of the community in the interpretation of Holy Scripture, the characteristics of the Biblical narrative and comparison of the Bible and the Word of God. According the theology of community sources for the development of theology found in Holy Scripture, tradition and culture, through which God speaks. Therefore Holy Scripture is not the monopoly authority in matters of faith and theology. To explain Holy (...) Scripture can only staying in the church community where truly knowable Christian truth. According B.McLaren the Bible should never be studied and analyzed. The Bible should be seen as a work of art and to read like a story based on the fact that most of the text of Holy Scripture is precisely the narrative. The cause of erroneous traditional reading of the biblical narrative is that it was generated by the synthesis of the Greek philosophical tradition with the political, economic and military dominants of Roman Empire. B.McLaren considers the correct way of understanding the Bible attitude to it as a library of specific community, which traces its history to the biblical patriarchs. The task of the modern reader of the Bible - put yourself in text, in conversation, in history, in a community of people who seek God. (shrink)

Gibbsian statistical mechanics (GSM) is the most widely used version of statistical mechanics among working physicists. Yet a closer look at GSM reveals that it is unclear what the theory actually says and how it bears on experimental practice. The root cause of the difficulties is the status of the Averaging Principle, the proposition that what we observe in an experiment is the ensemble average of a phase function. We review different stances toward this principle, and eventually present a (...) coherent interpretation of GSM that provides an account of the status and scope of the principle. (shrink)

Today, there are several problems in the field of criminal law caused both by the emergence of new types of legal relations and by the imperfection of legislation. Due to the emergence of new challenges in the field of criminal law, many of them require theoretical understanding. Some of these challenges, generated in the light of the armed aggression of the Russian Federation against Ukraine, revealed several reasons for discussion in the Ukrainian and international legal community. The purpose of the (...) study involves consideration of certain aspects of modern challenges in the field of criminal-legal relations, which arose against the background of the military aggression of the Russian Federation in Ukraine. The first part of the study is devoted to the question of the qualification of war crimes committed by the Russian Federation in Ukraine as acts of genocide. The second part of the work is devoted to the issue of using existing international legal mechanisms to hold the Russian Federation accountable for war crimes. There are convincing reasons to say that the actions of the Russian Federation during the war in Ukraine have signs of the crime of genocide. Even though Ukraine is not a party to the Rome Statute, the Ukrainian government can use another tool to bring the subjects of war crimes to justice, by creating a certain mixed investigative mechanism or a criminal tribunal that could deal directly with the crime of aggression. (shrink)

The views on in vitro fertilization within Russian Orthodox Christian society are diverse. One reason for that variation is the ambiguity found in “The Basis of the Social Concept,” the document issued in 2000 by the Russian Orthodox Church and considered to be the primary guidelines for determining the Church’s stance on bioethics. This essay explores how the treatment of infertility reconciles with the Orthodox Christian faith and what methods of medical assistance for infertility may be appropriate for Orthodox Christians. (...) The focus here is on IVF because it is among the most widely used methods to overcome childlessness, and the permissibility of IVF is the object of disagreement among Orthodox. The article defines criteria that can help to discern what is absolutely wrong and must be avoided from what only falls short of the mark, but not very far, for Orthodox Christians. If treatment of the underlying causes of infertility has failed or promises no hope and a husband and a wife do not feel able to carry the Cross of infertility, then from pastoral dispensation they might be blessed to use ethically acceptable variants of IVF. IVF has many variants that are different in their spiritual influence on a person. Orthodox Christians pursuing IVF should seek spiritual guidance and a blessing to pursue IVF. They must not form more embryos than will be transferred in the same cycle. Freezing, discarding, or reduction of embryos is forbidden. Infertile couples ought to use only their reproductive cells. The use of donor gametes is unacceptable. Any embryo formed ought to be transferred into the wife’s womb, and the use of surrogates is impermissible. Only a husband and wife who are able to maintain their marital union and where the wife is still of childbearing age should be blessed to use IVF. (shrink)

People have always tried to make predictions; they are necessary and useful, but very often they commit obvious errors, which have negative consequences on decision-making. Prediction errors are in some cases, not few, unavoidable, because the world itself is unpredictable, subject to chance (or randomness in mathematics). Chance is a property of nature. The causes of random events are physically determined, but so numerous and complex that they (the events) are unpredictable. Science is not about certainty. Human knowledge itself is (...) not certain. We can only have provisional truths. Therefore, we must manage to reach a state of accommodation with uncertainty and unpredictability. The complexity of natural phenomena generates events that we cannot control through theoretical modeling precisely because of the ignorance of the causal mechanisms, which exist in their privacy but have not (yet) been revealed by the data and observations at our disposal. We have, on the one hand, life experience taken over and assimilated and established in society and, on the other hand, experience gained from real life. Norm and chance follow each other rather chaotically. The duration of validity of a norm and the moment of occurrence of the random event are unpredictable. However, norms and events coexist in our consciousness. Order and predictability are born (formed and exist) from rules; chance and unpredictability are born from the lack of rules. The highest truths, recognized as such by society cannot be transposed into the life of society only by the force of reason. It is imperative that they are reinforced and embedded in the social behavior of all citizens. Rules are needed. Without rules there is no freedom. (shrink)

Ces dernieres annees, plusieurs travaux sur la philosophie des jesuites en Pologne au XVIᵉ XVIᵉ et XVIIᵉ siecle ont ete publies. Ceux qui sent ecrits en langues plus connues, sont enumeres dans la bibliographie a la fin de cet article. Malgre cela, on ne pent pas dire que cette philosophie soit suffisamment explicite. Mais actuellement, il existe deja des fondements plus solides pour essayer de creer une synthese de cette philosophie. Cet essai est d'autant plus fonde que d'apres l'opinion (...) de quelques historiens une synthese doit etre faite a chaque etape des recherches. Le present essai de synthese traite de la philosophie enseignee du XVIᵉ au XVIIIᵉ slecle dans les colleges des jesuites en Pologne et en Lituanie qui constituaient alors un seul etat — une Republique des deux Nations. II se rapporte donc au territoire de cet etat dans ses frontieres historiques. L'article comprend la periode de I'arrivee des jesuites en Pologne en 1564 jusqu'a la suppression de leur ordre en 1773. (shrink)

Le Pere Paul Siwek SJ est un des plus eminents philosophes et psychologues polonais. II a travaille dans differents pays et s'est acquis une estime et une celebrite internationales. Pour familiariser le lecteur avec la personne de Siwek, on presente ici, de facon succincte, sa biographie, la liste de ses livres principaux publies en plusieurs langues, la caracteristique de son activite et la bibliographie des publications principales qui contiennent des donnees sur lui.

La intertextualidad es uno de los objetos inmanentes de toda poética, cada texto literario es el germen de uno anterior, por lo que los modos en que se incluye en las textualidades pueden ser múltiples. Los trabajos de investigación en formas breves de Denevi, Blaisten, Amable y Liniers nos conducen a configurar la categoría de “fragmentos extranjeros” que nos permite identificar las variantes de co-presencia literaria que presentan los textos. Hablamos, entonces, de traducción e injerto como dos líneas posibles. El (...) objetivo de este trabajo es revisar qué tipo y de qué manera surgen fragmentos extranjeros en un corpus propuesto por dichos autores. El marco teórico de referencia alude a Genette, Deleuze, Derrida. (shrink)

The article is an attempt not only to refer again, but also interpret some pivotal elements of the concept of sublimity presented in Kant’s Critique of Judgment. Kant presented a source interpretation of the category referring to sublime phenomena of nature or simple works of art, but such delineating of the field of interest was caused by the epistemological aims of the third Critique. In this presentation I would like to widen Kant’s interpretation of the conception and add some references (...) of the sense of freedom to the content of psychological character. This problems are a subject of intensive research among Torun aestheticians. (shrink)

Among the most interesting ideas of New Left in the US is a search for authenticity in human personality, or investigation of the place and role of the contemporary man when he is found in the setting: man-group-society-state. Finding such authenticity non-existent on the American scene the ideologists of New Left trace back the causes of this situation, characterized by deformation of personality deprived of the ego, and depict an authentic man who accepts himself both with respect to his ego (...) and as a part of a social group in which he lives. Surreptitious emphasis of the value of the individual and of his unique personality points to the individuality of man as a central category of this line of thought. In the consequence of coexistence of various personalities, variety is the main feature of the new American society postulated by New Left. Individuality and variety imply freedom as a key concept of that thought. Variety of human individualities enjoying freedom will enable the quest for the authentic ego and abolish the manifestations of alienation which do not exist within the real interpersonal community. Community as a structural form of social coexistence is based on close, often intimate, interpersonal relations and allegedly enables unconstrained search for individuality, showing a new way from the present atomization of the American society. The key values of that thought are potentially conflicting: on the one hand there is a set of ideas: individuality, variety, freedom; on the other, there is the concept of community. The two counterparts may easily stand in conflict or mutually limit their application. In such cases it is postulated to detect the causes of conflict and eliminate them. (shrink)

Le présent article prend pour point de départ de sa réflexion sur les enjeux épistémologiques et méthodologiques des petits corpus un constat simple, à savoir que ceux-ci ont survécu à l’heure où l’essor de la linguistique de corpus et le développement du big data ont multiplié les ressources. Cette survie est, selon nous, la preuve d’une nécessité à la fois matérielle et logistique et d’une pertinence scientifique des petits corpus que nous explorons sous l’angle particulier de la (...) langue orale et du domaine spécifique de la phonologie. Nous montrons en quoi cette discipline entretient un rapport unique à l’objet langue et donc privilégié aux corpus et repensons la validité des corpus non pas en termes de taille, mais en termes de finalité. Nous défendons alors la méthodologie et les ambitions du programme PAC dont la base de données sur l’anglais oral contemporain repose exclusivement sur de petits corpus spécialisés constitués dans les différentes aires géographiques anglophones. Nous démontrons non seulement la pertinence individuelle de ces petits corpus pour l’étude quantitative et qualitative de phénomènes précis, comme le nivellement de la variété mancunienne dans le nord de l’Angleterre ; mais également l’apport concret de la comparabilité et de la jonction possible des analyses faites à partir de ces petits corpus pour la modélisation théorique des phénomènes de rhoticité et de r de sandhi dans les variétés d’anglais parlées à travers le monde. Ainsi, nous illustrons la manière dont les résultats obtenus grâce à l’étude en profondeur des petits corpus PAC permettent de penser la dynamique des systèmes de l’anglais ainsi que le poids sociolinguistique des identités, notamment nord-sud, dans la description et la compréhension de leurs caractéristiques phonético-phonologiques. Aussi, en défendant les petits corpus, nous défendons en creux la phonologie de corpus, et nous remettons en cause la supériorité automatique des grands corpus pour ce qui est de l’analyse en profondeur de la langue orale et de l’évolution des variétés d’anglais parlées à travers le monde. (shrink)

Préalables S’il nous paraît important de poursuivre la discussion, appelée de nos vœux, avec les tenants de l’herméneutique « matérielle » / « numérique » (Mayaffre 2006), cette « réplique » (cf. Jullien 2007) aux commentaires que Damon Mayaffre (désormais DM) a pris le temps de nous adresser sera brève, l’ouvrage collectif Corpus numérique, langues et sens. Enjeux épistémologiques et politiques (Debono [dir.], 2014) proposant d’assez larges développements quant aux termes de ce débat. Dans...

Ces dernieres annees, plusieurs travaux sur la philosophie des jesuites en Pologne au XVIᵉ XVIᵉ et XVIIᵉ siecle ont ete publies. Ceux qui sent ecrits en langues plus connues, sont enumeres dans la bibliographie a la fin de cet article. Malgre cela, on ne pent pas dire que cette philosophie soit suffisamment explicite. Mais actuellement, il existe deja des fondements plus solides pour essayer de creer une synthese de cette philosophie. Cet essai est d'autant plus fonde que d'apres l'opinion (...) de quelques historiens une synthese doit etre faite a chaque etape des recherches. Le present essai de synthese traite de la philosophie enseignee du XVIᵉ au XVIIIᵉ slecle dans les colleges des jesuites en Pologne et en Lituanie qui constituaient alors un seul etat — une Republique des deux Nations. II se rapporte donc au territoire de cet etat dans ses frontieres historiques. L'article comprend la periode de I'arrivee des jesuites en Pologne en 1564 jusqu'a la suppression de leur ordre en 1773. (shrink)

Le Pere Paul Siwek SJ est un des plus eminents philosophes et psychologues polonais. II a travaille dans differents pays et s'est acquis une estime et une celebrite internationales. Pour familiariser le lecteur avec la personne de Siwek, on presente ici, de facon succincte, sa biographie, la liste de ses livres principaux publies en plusieurs langues, la caracteristique de son activite et la bibliographie des publications principales qui contiennent des donnees sur lui.

In this article, we investigate the functional itinerary followed by Hebrew be'emet, through a close exploration of its synchronic uses in the contemporary spoken language. Since this utterance, derived from the noun 'emet, is so profoundly tied in with the speaker's beliefs and attitudes towards his or her discourse, we consider issues of metalanguage, modality, evidentiality, and stance. Be'emet is traditionally classified as `adverb', but in our corpus of naturally occurring Hebrew conversation, only 22 percent of all tokens function (...) in this role. Whereas these tokens function referentially, the great majority of tokens function in the interpersonal realm of discourse, manifesting properties of discourse markers: 44.5 percent of all tokens function as full-fledged discourse markers serving mirative, reprimanding, or negating any doubt roles; 22.5 percent function to ratify a previous stance; and three percent function to latch onto a new topic, requesting its elaboration. An intermediate category is composed of tokens functioning both referentially and interpersonally, mid-way between an adverb and a discourse marker, in a way that is particularly illuminating for understanding the changes undergone by be'emet as a result of its employment in discourse. The study thus lends support to previous studies of subjectification and intersubjectification in the process of grammaticization of discourse markers. (shrink)

The native language changes as a result of contact with a second language, and the pattern and degree of such change depend on a variety of factors like the bilingual experience or the linguistic level. Here, we present a systematic review and meta-analysis of works that explore variations in native sentence comprehension and production by comparing monolinguals and bilinguals. Fourteen studies in the meta-analysis provided information regarding the bilingual experience and differences at the morphosyntactic level using behavioral methods. Overall, we (...) observed that first language processing is subject to small transformations in bilinguals that occur in sentence comprehension and production. The magnitude of the changes depended on bilingual experiences, but only length of residence in an L2 setting predicted the degree of change, where shorter length of residence was associated with larger changes. Results are discussed and related to the cognitive processes that potentially cause the transformations in the first language. The present work reveals some limitations in the field that should be addressed in future studies to better understand the mechanisms behind language attrition. (shrink)

The purpose of the article is to identify, analyze and summarize the main theological and sociological approaches to the study of the latest trends of the Western Protestant theological inquiry that takes into account the condition of postmodernity, based on the study of the researches of the Emerging church. As a methodological foundation of the research it is employed the interdisciplinary approach, as well as the comparative method, which gives the researcher the opportunity to fully consider the theological and socio-cultural (...) features of Emerging Church. Scientific novelty. As follows from the analysis, there are various theological and sociological interpretations of the church. In particular, the phenomenon of post-modern religiosity is interpreted as a form of protest against the traditional evangelical Protestantism, as the movement of cultural and religious criticism, whose identity is formed by the deconstruction of narratives and discourses of traditional evangelical Christianity, as the autonomous Protestant tradition that applies postmodern forms of knowledge for rethinking of the Christian faith. Conclusions. A new phenomenon of Western Christianity has caused intense debate in the scientific and especially theological environment. Despite the availability of a wide range of interpretations of the new movement, the researchers acknowledge its religious innovative meaning, recognizing the potential of the Emerging Church to actualize the process of transformation of traditional institutions and practices of Protestantism so that it again would be able to enter into dialogue with society in a new socio-cultural situation. (shrink)

In the paper I ask the question about the relation between formal logic and the natural logic of human mind. By a natural logic I mean the ways of thinking of a person that is intelligent but untrained in formal logic. As it turns out that the laws, rules or properties of formal logic in some cases diverge from the natural ways of reasoning, I explain the causes of this divergence. Since the majority of research in this area has been (...) carried out from the standpoint of psychology, as a logician I suggest a slight change of the angle from which we look at the problem. I argue that certain narrowing of an interdisciplinary research would be helpful in getting a better picture of natural logic, and might provide a new stimulus for formal investigations. (shrink)

In this article, we argue that the scope of bioethical debate concerning justice in health should expand beyond the topic of access to health care and cover such issues as occupational hazards, safe housing, air pollution, water quality, food and drug safety, pest control, public health, childhood nutrition, disaster preparedness, literacy, and many other environmental factors that can cause differences in health. Since society does not have sufficient resources to address all of these environmental factors at one time, it (...) is important to set priorities for bioethical theorizing and policy formation. Two considerations should be used to set these priorities: (1) the impact of the environmental factor on health inequality, and (2) the practicality of addressing the factor. (shrink)

The purpose of this paper is to show how the film Der Himmel über Berlin (Wenders, 1987) allows for a phenomenological reflection on the bonds of human beings with the world. For this purpose, we submit the hypothesis that the thinking of Byung-Chul Han—who has demonstrated a particular interest in this specific film—, functions as a philosophical lens through which such a reading may be advanced. To that end, this paper has three sections: the first section sees Damiel, one of (...) the film’s main characters, as a vehicle to describe the lightness of the world and the angst resulting from not being able to bond with the weight of existence. The second section presents Peter Falk as the main trigger that causes Damiel to decide to enter the world of mortals and live a life exiled from eternity. Finally, we present Marion, Damiel’s romantic interest, as the main motivation for Damiel to renounce being an angel, as she fulfills the role of an Eros capable of triggering in the individual the vital strength to cause the subject to enter into a bond with the world. (shrink)

Au sein du service de placement où exerce en tant que psychologue le premier auteur de cet article a été développée une recherche longitudinale qui vise à explorer le fonctionnement psychique des adolescents auteurs de violences sexuelles et les modalités de leur accompagnement éducatif et thérapeutique. L’article propose de se centrer sur leur placement en famille d’accueil, la dynamique relationnelle témoignant des particularités des liens tissés avec les premiers objets. La présentation de la situation de Nicolas mettra en exergue les (...) difficultés, malentendus et usures qui semblent illustrer un scénario qui se répète et qui conduit à la rupture. Les auteurs ouvrent une réflexion, dans une perspective psychodynamique, pour tenter de comprendre les mouvements psychiques à l’œuvre du côté de l’adolescent, notamment sur un plan intersubjectif, dans la perspective développée par René Kaës, et invitent à s’intéresser aux adaptations nécessaires au sein des dispositifs éducativo-thérapeutiques d’accompagnement. (shrink)

À travers deux études de cas, on montre comment le travail sur corpus permet de prendre en compte la variabilité de la langue tout en donnant accès par la mise en paradigme de nombreuses occurrences à la valeur abstraite de marqueurs ou d'opérations énonciatives. L'attention à la diversité lexicale et syntaxique des contextes devient un atout pour déterminer ce qui favorise le recours à tel marqueur plutôt que tel autre. Par ailleurs certains faits apparaissent comme relevant à la fois (...) de l'orientation argumentative et de l'organisation textuelle et au-delà de la multiplicité des faits de discours se dégagent des spécificités génériques et des valeurs énonciatives stables. (shrink)

As AI technologies increase in capability and ubiquity, AI accidents are becoming more common. Based on normal accident theory, high reliability theory, and open systems theory, we create a framework for understanding the risks associated with AI applications. This framework is designed to direct attention to pertinent system properties without requiring unwieldy amounts of accuracy. In addition, we also use AI safety principles to quantify the unique risks of increased intelligence and human-like qualities in AI. Together, these two fields give (...) a more complete picture of the risks of contemporary AI. By focusing on system properties near accidents instead of seeking a root cause of accidents, we identify where attention should be paid to safety for current generation AI systems. (shrink)

Notwithstanding the opportunities it provides, the implementation of some measures of the EU Common Agricultural Policy (EU CAP), including agri-environment-climate measures (AECMs), also generates threats. The study identifies an extremely disturbing process that can be referred to as “internal neo-colonialism”, which has been driven by the technocratic agrarian policy of the EU and transformations in Poland at the turn of the twenty-first century. The associated disadvantageous practices mainly affect areas under threat of marginalisation and peripheralisation, including Poland with its post-Socialist (...) heritage, which has shaped the attitudes and behaviour of society and has consolidated linkages between politics and business. In order to retrace such activities, the study analyses EU funds granted in support of farmers implementing AECMs, with a focus on analysing the place of residence of the “farmer” and the location of the farm. As the research shows, the attractiveness of CAP support causes Polish agriculture and Poland’s countryside, including its natural and financial resources, to be drained by so-called “suitcase farmers”, i.e. people/entities not tied to the place where the agricultural activity is pursued, many of whom live in cities. One common practice is to take over land located in legally protected areas noted for their high quality of natural environment. Not only does the practice of land grabbing strengthen the social exclusion of rural communities and the peripheralisation and pauperisation of these areas, but it also hinders discussion about environmental justice and the ecological integrity of rural areas. (shrink)

Notre article illustre l’utilité de la calibration générique des corpus pour l’analyse diachronique de la langue française. Nous explorons le cas de l’antéposition stylistique de l’infinitif et du participe au sein de trois corpus constitués respectivement de textes littéraires, de coutumiers normands et de procès, de la période de l’ancien français à celle du français classique. Le calibrage générique montre que les évolutions de ces phénomènes d’antéposition diffèrent selon le type de texte, et que les textes légaux montrent (...) une surreprésentation de ces constructions, en lien avec la pratique de la langue latine qu’observaient les spécialistes du droit. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:How Policies and Practices in Medical Settings Impact Communication Access with Deaf Patients and CaregiversKelley Cooper, Maggie Russell, Debra Chaiken, Michael W. Mazzaroppi, and Gretchen RomanIntroductionWe are a group of Deaf community members, sign language interpreters, organizational leaders, and academic partners. We have a collective point of view about how policies and practices in medical settings impact communication access with Deaf patients and caregivers. Here, we account multiple stories (...) from our respective experiences in an effort to improve healthcare institutions' awareness of the recommended modalities when communicating with Deaf patients accessing care. Our stories clarify any misunderstandings about communication with Deaf patients who expressively use spoken language and receptively use sign language. We convey that it is imperative to use visual language when explaining discharge paperwork and emphasize that it is critical for a Deaf caregiver to be fully aware of the plan of care when offering support to their loved one. We illustrate the importance of honoring the requests for in-person sign language interpreting versus video remote interpreting (VRI) as well as requests for Deaf-Hearing sign language interpreter teams. Deaf interpreters bring formative cultural, linguistic, and life experiences and work in partnership with a hearing interpreter to provide a more nuanced communication exchange across a wide range of visual languages.Maggie Russell: Anecdote 1The hospital recidivism rate for a Deaf Nepali male patient continues to increase. As the Interpreter Referral Service Director, I am aware of this patient because he receives care management services from our organization. He has several life-threatening conditions, attends dialysis, is on multiple medications, and is frequently in and out of the local hospital. The hospital considers him as someone who identifies as an oral Deaf person, as he has severe to profound hearing loss with little or no residual hearing and visually receives signed language but expressively uses spoken language. Three interpreters, a spoken Nepalese interpreter, a Deaf Nepali Sign Language (NSL) interpreter, and a hearing American Sign Language (ASL) interpreter, working together as a team are recommended for effective communication with this patient and the medical team of providers. However, interpreting services at the hospital provide only one interpreter, a spoken Nepalese interpreter, which [End Page E3] does not satisfy the necessary accommodations for access. A plethora of prescriptions were added to his regimen to counter the condition that caused a recent inpatient stay. The patient's wife is his primary caregiver. She communicates receptively and expressively using NSL. A Deaf NSL and hearing ASL interpreter team creates effective communication with his wife and the medical team of providers. Since she is expected to follow the doctor's recommendations as explained in the discharge instructions, she also requires accommodations for communication access. Neither the patient nor his wife received a formal education, and they do not read or write English or the language of their country of origin. Therefore, information in English or Nepalese conveyed in the printed discharge paperwork is inaccessible. The new medications were not incorporated into his already established monthly "pill pack," and the couple was unable to read the information on the pill bottles that were delivered to their home. Subsequently, incorrect use of the newly prescribed medications significantly delayed the patient's course of recovery. This couple also had minimal exposure to medical information and medical processes prior to living in the United States; the medical services in the refugee camps in Nepal were typically non-existent. Utilizing a hearing ASL interpreter alone does not constitute barrier-free access for either of these individuals. Interpreting medical documents in a visual format is so critical for providing access, but it doesn't necessarily guarantee comprehension because of their limited health literacy. In addition to employing the recommended interpreting team, using teach-back methods during an encounter is a good way for medical providers to ensure the patient and caregiver's understanding of the plan of care.Maggie Russell: Anecdote 2As the Interpreter Referral Service Director at our organization, I served as the hearing interpreter on a Deaf-Hearing ASL interpreter team at a follow-up gastrointestinal appointment from a gall bladder biopsy for a Deaf male patient, along with his Deaf... (shrink)

On the basis of synchronic English language material, Bolinger (Degree Words, Mouton, 1972) has put forward the hypothesis that intensifying meanings or “degree words” often develop from identifying expressions. This paper will empirically test Bolinger's hypothesis by means of in-depth diachronic study of the development of such—one of Bolinger's central examples—and of its Dutch cognate zulk in historical text corpora. To this aim, a detailed cognitive-functional account will first be provided of the (differences between the) identifying and intensifying uses of (...) such and zulk, with attention for diachronic changes affecting the syntax and semantics of these uses, cross-linguistically as well as language-specifically. It will be shown that, as predicted by Bolinger (Degree Words, Mouton, 1972), the proportion of identifying uses decreases over time in favor of the intensifying uses both in English and Dutch. The comparison between such and zulk will, however, show that, despite the close relation between these two languages, the development does not run strictly parallel in English and Dutch, thus endorsing a view that language change does not necessarily follow predetermined pathways. We will argue that minute differences in the syntax of such and zulk steer the diachronic course these elements follow. Finally, Bolinger's shift from identification to intensification will be discussed in terms of its relation to existing (inter)subjectification hypotheses. (shrink)

The following is excerpted from Sean Gurd’s translation of Euripides’ Hippolytus published with Uitgeverij this year. Though he was judged “most tragic” in the generation after his death, though more copies and fragments of his plays have survived than of any other tragedian, and though his Orestes became the most widely performed tragedy in Greco-Roman Antiquity, during his lifetime his success was only moderate, and to him his career may have felt more like a failure. He was regularly selected to (...) have his plays performed in the annual festival of Dionysus at Athens. But the plays were performed in a competition, and in the competitions he lost and lost, winning first place only five times in a career that spanned more than forty years. His corpus reads like the remains of a life spent trying to get a few things right and never being quite satisfied: scenes and schematized combinations of elements recur again and again, each time slightly changed. Hippolytus itself is an example: it contains two scenes in which a sick or dying character lies on a couch or a stretcher and is surrounded by silence and grief; he had experimented with such scenes in Alcestis, and would work with them again in Herakles and Orestes. Nor, judging from appearances, was he immune to the desire to score a hit, or to satisfy the audiences and the judges at the competition. Hippolytus is a rewrite of another Hippolytus, performed several years earlier, which scandalized the audience and certainly did not take first place. In that earlier Hippolytus (called by later writers Hippolytus Veiled), Euripides fashioned a Phaedra who was neither ashamed of loving her stepson nor incapable of taking steps to satisfy her desire. The forwardness of her approach to Hippolytus so outraged him that he covered his head with a robe (hence the play’s later title). Euripides liked to write energetic and self-confident women like this. He staged his Medea in 431, just three years before he revised Hippolytus, and in it the jilted title character murders her children in revenge for Jason’s new marriage to a more politically advantageous wife. Another flop: the play came in third of three. Evidently the judges did not like their women showing agency, especially when the consequences were transgressive. “The ornament of women,” wrote another great Athenian a little earlier, “is silence.”i Euripides’ Medea and his first Phaedra had other decorations. So three years after Medea crashed and burned and some time after the first Hippolytus suffered the same fate, he produced another Hippolytus play with a different setting and story. How could this one not have been a reaction to the failure of the first? “Second thoughts are always better,” he has one of his characters say, as though he were offering an apology for his first thoughts on the same story. In this new version, Phaedra is suicidally ashamed of her love, choosing to die rather than have it discovered, and willing to bring down her beloved Hippolytus in the service of the same end. Now it is Phaedra herself who covers her head in shock and horror at her desire. Only an intermediary, a slave of the house and an old crone with her fingers in all sorts of illicit pots, communicates Phaedra’s secret – against orders – and in consequence brings about the demise of two resolutely moral figures. It worked. For his tale of two well-born nobles with an unswerving commitment to moral action, destroyed by the meddling of a slave (and by the hostility of some particularly uncaring divinities), the judges crowned Euripides winner. It was the first time he had won, after almost thirty years of work. *** What Hippolytus wants more than anything else, as he protests with outrage just before leaving Trozen for the last time, is the benefit of due process – oaths, witnesses, an investigation that would reveal who really lusted after whom. Ironic, given that in the first Hippolytus, as far as we can make out, he did get a trial – but too late, and Theseus’ successful processing of Hippolytus failed to prevent his death. I cannot help hearing in the second Hippolytus’ complaints the anger of his authorial semblable who lost year after year by a process of judging that might have seemed brutal to him. Judges took no cognizance of how he worked, how long or hard or why; they just voted, and Euripides lost. But then I hear, in the fate of the first Hippolytus, an even grimmer commentary. Processed or not, we lose. We run aground. At the very least, this might cast a darker shadow on the business of watching or reading a play: in that twilight, things move too fast to make a fair assessment and, in any case, the reasonably high definition of what you see and hear belies the truth of indistinction, the multiplicities just below the surface. Watching is a constrained activity, a form of captivity, but reading is plastic. This translation was begun to supply the script for an audio version of the play, recorded in the spring of 2012, and here and there it sacrifices literalness for sayability and the voices and passions of the actors on that occasion. But it was finished to be read, and engineered to create a reading caught between the poles of specificity and non-specificity that the play itself conjures and relies on at its generative core. Thus two texts: the one clear, perhaps overprecise, respectably modern in its presentation, and the other ancient, a reasonable approximation of the classical reading process, and indistinct in vital ways. Like early modern dramatic texts, the exact provenance and original function of the scripts that have made it down to us are unknown. We do know that the ultimate survival of Hippolytus was thanks to its wide-spread use as a school text. But its relation to the first performance in 428 BCE is a matter only of speculation. Euripides presumably had a fair copy before production began; it was probably modified during rehearsals. The actors may have had copies, too (probably the young men who served in the chorus did not). The chor?gos, a wealthy Athenian who paid for the production, might have been presented with or just made sure to get his hands on a high-quality text, to commemorate the play’s success. Fans might have been able to buy copies. Any one of these sources might have provided the ultimate progenitor of our text. Several of them might have, in fact, if later editors compared and conflated traditions. The plays toured extensively in the Greek-speaking world, and were restaged as repertoire for centuries afterwards. In the process they were subjected to enough modifications by producers and actors that in the later fourth century the Athenian statesman Lycurgus had a law passed prohibiting performances at Athens from deviating from the official “city” text of the tragedies (which he had commissioned). It is unlikely that the city text was the last word; but it marks an important moment in Athens’ role in their dissemination, since after this the major sites of textual curatorship moved overseas, to Alexandria, Pergamum, Rome, Antioch, Constantinople. Any single text of any single play is thus no more than a moment of clarity and stability, crossed and subtended by multiple vectors of change, including that of textual flux (from Euripides’ first drafts to the latest printed text) and that of Euripides’ life work as a writer, in the light of which the Hippolytus is just one attempt to produce something exactly right, to win the prize or finally satisfy himself or prove to himself that all this longing for perfection was a waste of time. I am intrigued by the possibility that a single text might somehow serve as a lens onto this wider zone of indistinction, representing a small region clearly but nonetheless containing a blurred image of the whole, like a Leibnizian monad. After all, no text is a witness: it is, rather, a perception and a performance, and what every Hippolytus must perform is the awkward overlay of singular and plural, social practise and subliminal drive, that structures the tragedy. Modern critical editions can do this by juxtaposing a (relatively) clean and simple text with a textual apparatus reporting variants and theorizing the relationship between textual instantiations. A translation lacks the resolution to catch the fine variations which feed into the construction of an apparatus. But there are other means to hand. Guessing at the exact words of the original text is always just that – guessing – though Hippolytus is less problematic than plays like Iphigenia at Aulis. But we can make a pretty secure guess at what such a text looked like. Texts read by fifth-century readers were fundamentally different from what is presented in the best medieval MSS and printed in modern publications. The texts of Euripides’ time and for many centuries afterwards did not indicate word division with spaces (or by any other means) and were extremely sparing in punctuation, often avoiding it altogether. There was only one “case” of letters – what we call “capitals.” Musical sections were inscribed as though they were prose, without line endings to reflect their rhythm or their rhetorical structure. There was no indication of the speakers within a dramatic text, either. The earliest surviving dramatic texts, which come from over a century after Euripides’ death and a time which was much more elaborate and precise in its textual culture, indicated speaker-change with a little line or paragraphos below the line and a double-point [:] at its end. This convention almost certainly does not date back to Euripides’ own time; it may not even date to Lycurgus. In any case, such indications were understood to be readers’ marks: they did not have the same authority as the text and they were subject to readers’ revisions. At least ideationally, if not in concrete and distinguishable fact, a dramatic text was understood as containing no indication of speaker-change (and certainly none of who was saying what). The reader had to figure that out for him-/herself. The clear, legible, easy texts we are accustomed to reading are the fabrications of medieval and modern reading cultures. The first text, then, presents the translation as the text would have been in the mid-fourth century, perhaps decades after Euripides’ death. The second text processes Hippolytus, makes sense of it and makes it “readable.” That is: too distinct, dangerously so. It gets in your way, conjures fantoms, tries to make you see. Fragments of the Hippolytus Veiled, otherwise almost entirely lost, are juxtaposed with similar passages in the text – not to suggest a reconstruction, but a dialogue and a complex set of reassessments. I have not tried to represent the full variety of textual variants, but I have signalled where, for one reason or another, the text is soft and different editions propose excisions or changes. The two texts must be read together: you, reader, form the bridge between the distinctly seen and the indistinct invisible. You, in the end, will be its mask. *** illsandhateddiseaseswhatcanidoforyouwhatshouldinotdohereisthelightandthebrightairyoursickbedisnowout s idethehouseyoureverywordwastocomeherebutyouwillrushbacktoyourbedroomagainyoufadequicklyyoudelig htinnothingyoudislikewhatyouhaveyoulovewhatyoudontitsbettertobesickthantendthesickthefirstissimpleto the secondattachesheartspainandhandsworkeveryhumanlifeispainfulthereisnoendtotoildarknesshidesbehindclo udswhateverisdearerthanlifeweproveunhappyloversofwhatshineshereforlackofknowledgeofanotherlifethere isnoproofforthingsbeneaththeearthonlystoriessustainus liftmybodystraightenmyheadthebondsofmylimbsareloosenedtakemyhandsandmypalearmsthishatistooheavy formyheadtoweartakeitoffspreadmyhairovermyshoulders couragechilddonttossandturnsoviolentlyyouwillbearyoursicknessmoreeasilywithpeaceandanoblemindallmort alssuffer aiaiiwanttodrinkpurewaterfromadewyspringiwanttoliebackandrestunderthetreesinsomegrassymeadowchildw hycrydontsaythesethingsnearthecrowdhurlingwordsmountedonmadness sendmetothemountainiwillgototheforestwherebeastkillingdogspressthespotteddeergodsilongtoshouttothedo gstoshootthethessalianjavelinpastmyblondhairtoholdthebarbeddartinmyhandwhythisanxietychildwhatdoyouc areabouthuntingwhydoyoulustforflowingspringstheresahillwithwaterjustnexttothetowerwecangetyouadrinkt h ereartemismistressofthesaltlakeandthecoursethunderingwithhorseshoovesiwishiwereonyourplainsbreakings t uds whythrowthesefrenziedwordsaboutjustnowyouweresettingoutforthemountaintohuntandnowyoulongforhorses onthewavelesssand thesethingsneedanoracletotellwhichgodreinsyouinanddrivesyoufromyoursenseschild whathaveidonehowfarhaveibeendrivenfromgoodthoughtsiwascrazyiwascursedbysomepowerpheupheualasn ursecovermyheadagainimashamedofwhativesaidcovermeatearmovesdownfrommyeyeanditembarrassesm eithurtstostraightenourmindanditisterribletobeinsanebesttodiebeforeyoubecomelucidagain illcoveryoubutwhenwilldeathcovermeimoldivelearnedalotmortalsshoulddrinkoffriendshipmoderatelynotfrom th edeepestmarrowofthesoulamindslovecharmsshouldbeeasytoundoorthrustawayortiemoretightlyitisaverydiffic ultweightforonesoultolaborovertwopeopleasiamwrackedbypainforhertoomuchdisciplinecausesmoreharmthan pleasureandwarswithhealthipraisetoomuchlessthannothinginexcessandthewiseagreewithme *** Scene 1 Enter Phaedra and the Nurse; the former is recumbent on a couch while the latter bustles about her with gestures that might be those of a caregiver or a guard. NURSE Ills and hated diseases! What can I do for you? What should I not do? Here is the light, and the bright air; your sick bed is now outside the house. Your every word was to come here, but you will rush back to your bedroom again. You fade quickly. You delight in nothing. You dislike what you have. You love what you don’t. It’s better to be sick than tend the sick – the first is simple. To the second attaches heart’s pain and hand’s work. Every human life is painful. There is no end to toil. Darkness hides behind clouds whatever is dearer than life. We prove unhappy lovers of what shines here for lack of knowledge of another life. There is no proof for things beneath the earth. Only stories sustain us. PHAEDRA Lift my body, straighten my head: the bonds of my limbs are loosened. Take my hands and my pale arms. This hat is too heavy for my head to wear. Take it off, spread my hair over my shoulders. NURSE Courage, child; don’t toss and turn so violently. You will bear your sickness more easily with peace and a noble mind. All mortals suffer. PHAEDRA Aiai. I want to drink pure water from a dewy spring. I want to lie back and rest under the trees in some grassy meadow. NURSE Child, why cry? Don’t say these things near the crowd, hurling words mounted on madness. PHAEDRA Send me to the mountain. I will go to the forest where beast-killing dogs press the spotted deer. Gods! I long to shout to the dogs, to shoot the Thessalian javelin past my blond hair, to hold the barbed dart in my hand. NURSE Why this anxiety, child? What do you care about hunting? Why do you lust for flowing springs? There’s a hill with water just next to the tower; we can get you a drink there. PHAEDRA Artemis, mistress of the salt lake and the course thundering with horse’s hooves: I wish I were on your plains breaking studs! NURSE Why throw these frenzied words about? Just now you were setting out for the mountain to hunt – and now you long for horses on the waveless sand. These things need an oracle to tell which god reins you in and drives you from your senses, child. PHAEDRA What have I done? How far have I been driven from good thoughts? I was crazy, I was cursed by some power. Pheu pheu. Alas. Nurse, cover my head again. I’m ashamed of what I’ve said. Cover me – a tear moves down from my eye and it embarrasses me. It hurts to straighten your mind and it is terrible to be insane. Best to die before you become lucid again. NURSE I’ll cover you. But when will death cover me? I’m old; I’ve learned a lot. Mortals should drink of friendship moderately, not from the deepest marrow of the soul. A mind’s love-charms should be easy to undo, or thrust away, or tie more tightly. It is a very difficult weight for one soul to labor over two people, as I am wracked by pain for her. Too much discipline causes more harm than pleasure and wars with health. I praise “too much” less than “nothing in excess,” and the wise agree with me. ***. (shrink)