Chloroplasts and other plastids are plant cell organelles that account for major biochemical functions. They contain their own gene expression system but are integrated into the signaling network of the entire cell. Both nuclear and plastid genes are involved in chloroplast biogenesis, and the gene expression pathways both inside and outside the organelle are subject to developmental and environmental control. The plastid transcription apparatus reflects this general scheme, with a basic organelle‐encoded enzymatic machinery surrounded by factors that may be encoded (...) by nuclear genes. Among the transcription regulatory mechanisms thought to play a role during plastid development are: (1) differential usage of promoter elements; (2) phosphorylation of transcription factors by a protein kinase, which is itself subject to phosphorylation and redox control; (3) dynamic changes in the composition of the transcription apparatus. In etioplasts, the dominating polymerase ‘B’ is a bacterial‐type enzyme, whereas the major chloroplast polymerase ‘A’ is a much larger enzyme reminiscent of those in the nucleus. These two enzyme forms may share common components and recruit others during development. (shrink)

We start this paper by arguing that causality should, in analogy with force in Newtonian physics, be understood as a theoretical concept that is not explicated by a single definition, but by the axioms of a theory. Such an understanding of causality implicitly underlies the well-known theory of causal nets and has been explicitly promoted by Glymour. In this paper we investigate the explanatory warrant and empirical content of TCN. We sketch how the assumption of directed cause–effect relations can be (...) philosophically justified by an inference to the best explanation. We then ask whether the explanations provided by TCN are merely post-facto or have independently testable empirical content. To answer this question we develop a fine-grained axiomatization of TCN, including a distinction of different kinds of faithfulness. A number of theorems show that although the core axioms of TCN are empirically empty, extended versions of TCN have successively increasing empirical content. (shrink)

According to individualism about feelings, only individuals can experience feelings, because only individuals live under the condition of embodiment. Assuming a necessary link between emotions and feelings thus seems to justify doubt about the possibility of shared emotions. I challenge this line of argumentation by showing that feelings are best understood as enactments of a feeling body, which is a psycho-physically neutral expressive unity. Based on the body’s embeddedness into a world and connectedness with others, feelings are perceivable and (...) shareable. Accordingly, dynamics of mutual incorporation and interaffectivity are shown to be the ground for shared feelings. (shrink)

The circle between belief and meaning has revolutionized our understanding of communication. In this article I will sketch from the triangulation model of radical interpretation an answer to the question: “How does semantics take effect in social science?”, that is, it is to show “How do we link the mental, language, and the social?” I resystemize the principle of charity by the principle of natural epistemic justice and complete triangulation with the social frame of reference. Therefore, to break into (...) the circle between belief and meaning leads us to the structure of elementary systems of communication as the framework within which we ascribe attitudes and actions. In this framework, together with the reformulation of the task of RI, we find an answer of the Burge-problem that the intelligible redescription and explanation of behavior take also effects on social considerations. In the procedure of RI also the problem of background theories emerges, and we border on the epistemic capacity of speakers that limits our understanding in general. In the last step it is shown – looking back to the controversy between individualism and holism (collectivism) in social science – that group-predicates can not instantiate ontologically to individual entities. (shrink)

Asceticism and science are connected in Weber’s thought insofar as “asceticism” includes an attitude of job-related professionalization and this attitude in turn signifies capitalistic as well as scientific activity. In this way, asceticism has also an “innerworldly” nature, in contrast to the way it is depicted in Christianity or in other religions. In this (religious) sense, asceticism serves as a means to otherworldly completion, while its “innerworldly” meaning is entirely interior to itself. Insofar as for Weber, asceticism, independent from any (...) religious sense, signifies scientific as well as economic activity, it is a “practical-rational” conduct of life in the sense of competence, enhancement, and perfection. This is the methodological basis for a reconsideration of Thomas Aquinas’ ideas on asceticism. Thomas, like Weber, uncouples the relation of otherworldly completion and asceticism and links this decoupling to the priority of perfection of asceticism. However Thomas, contrary to Weber, associates asceticism with the conditions innate to a particular way of life; in this sense, asceticism can determine human existence itself, insofar as it is realized both “outside the world in monastic communities” and also “within this world and for it”. With reference to the relation of science and asceticism, for Thomas as well as for Weber scientific activity is “ascetic” in the sense that it strives for perfection. However, in contrast to Weber, Thomas maintains that it is impossible for a subject to bring his scientific activity to a complete conclusion. (shrink)

The body of measures promulgated to deal with the emergency of the depression is frequently linked up with the idea of a planned economy. That emergency measures have little or no essential connection with planning is the central thesis of this essay.The author discusses the four most important premises of the emergency measures : the intensity of the depression, the degree of organization reached by the country in depression, its social stratification, and its political set-up. Two emergency methods are distinguished. (...) On the one hand, an attempt is made to set the price mechanism in operation by lowering production costs, principally wages but also interest rates, rents, etc. The same adaption is aimed at by measures of state intervention which try to boost prices particularly by restriction of production and of imports. The second method, which has been used in an unprecedented manner during the present depression, attempts to stop the cumulative deflationary process by credit and monetary measures, as well as by public works.The effects of the emergency measures in some of the more important countries are discussed briefly. The author believes that a major part of these measures was necessitated by the course of events, but that their effect will be conflicting and of only short duration.Le but du travail est d'indiquer les idées les plus importantes pour comprendre et juger la politique de crise et de montrer qu'il ne saurait être question de considérer aucune des mesures prises comme un véritable plan. Par politique de crise, on entend les mesures destinées à atténuer ou surmonter une crise économique existante, par opposition à une „politique de conjoncture“ qui tend à une économie sans crise.L'auteur analyse les quatre prémisses fondamentales d'une politique de crise : profondeur de la dépression, degré d'organisation économique, structure sociale et organisation politique du pays atteint par la crise. On distingue deux méthodes employées pour combattre la crise. La politique d'adaptation, sous sa forme libérale, cherche à renforcer l'automatisme du marché, en diminuant les frais de production, etc. Les procédés d'intervention, dans la politique d'adaptation, ont pour objet l'augmentation des prix, avant tout à l'aide de restrictions de production et d'importation. La deuxième méthode, appliquée dans la crise actuelle avec une ampleur jamais encore connue, tâche d'arrêter le processus de déflation par des mouvements contraires. Les moyens principaux sont des mesures qui concernent le crédit et la monnaie, et des travaux publics. L'action d'ensemble de la politique de crise dans quelques pays importants est rapidement étudiée, à la fin de l'article. Encore que l'auteur considère une grande partie des mesures prises contre la crise comme inévitables, il tient leur action pour contradictoire et à courte échéance. (shrink)

Two key ideas of scientific explanation - explanations as causal information and explanation as unification - have frequently been set into mutual opposition. This paper proposes a "dialectical solution" to this conflict, by arguing that causal explanations are preferable to non-causal explanations because they lead to a higher degree of unification at the level of the explanation of statistical regularities. The core axioms of the theory of causal nets are justified because they give the best if not the only unifying (...) explanation of two statistical phenomena: screening off and linking up. Alternative explanation attempts are discussed and it is shown why they don't work. It is demonstrated that not the core of TC but extended versions of TC have empirical content, by means of which they can generate independently testable predictions. (shrink)

Résumé — 1 / Par « métaphysique » j’entends, d’accord avec la tradition, la réflexion philosophique sur l’être en tant que tel, sur la totalité de ce qui est, et, par suite éventuellement, sur ce qui est au-delà de l’être – à savoir, le divin. 2 / C’est dans le domaine du rapport quotidien qui relie l’homme avec le monde qu’on trouve les manifestations les plus riches de l’être, à condition que la réflexion soit capable de les déceler. 3 / (...) L’essence de ce rapport dans son unité intégrale et originaire est ce que j’appelle présence, qui est à la fois présence du monde pour l’homme et présence de l’homme dans le monde dont il est une partie – rapport réciproque ontologique et gnoséologique. 4 / Les structures de la présence sont celles de l’espace et du temps vécus avec leurs perspectives et horizons, et centrées dans le hic et nunc du corps humain. 5 / La fonction ontologique de la mémoire consiste en une représentification du passé dont le souvenir fait directement partie du présent vécu. 6 / Parallèlement à cette antériorité temporelle, il y a une antériorité de l’apriori eidétique par rapport à l’apparaître du phénomène ; celui-ci est déterminé dans son essence par le quid qui le transcende d’une manière atemporelle . 7 / Le problème du sens de l’être se pose à partir de la finalité de l’action humaine, qui est l’élément proprement intégratif de la présence. L’aspect contingent de l’action signale une absence de signification, tandis que c’est de la part de la détermination eidétique du but de l’action que lui accroît un supplément de sens relatif et provisoire. 8 / Dans la présence même il y a toujours de l’absence. C’est là qu’est enraciné le dynamisme de la réalité relationnelle aussi bien que la transcendance de l’absolu. 9 / En suivant d’une certaine manière le principe de la théologie négative , il est – sous réserve du paradoxe – philosophiquement possible d’affirmer la transcendance absolue du divin qui est de même immanence absolue.10 / Repenser la dimension religieuse de l’existence humaine pourrait être une tâche importante pour la philosophie contemporaine.— 1 / By « metaphysics » I mean, in accordance with tradition, the philosophical thought on the being as such, on the totality of what is and eventually as well on what is beyond the being, that is the divine. 2 / We can find the richest demonstrations of the being in the daily relationship that links man to the world, providing that the mind is open to finding. 3 / The essence of this relationship in its integral and innate unity is what I call presence, which is at the same time presence of the world for man and presence of man in the world, of which he is a part – a mutually ontological and gnoseological relationship. 4 / The structures of the presence are those of the lived space and time with their viewpoints and horizons and they are centered in the hic et nunc of the human body. 5 / The ontological function of memory lays in the representation of the past, of which recollections directly belong to the lived present. 6 / In parallel with this worldly precedence there is a precedence of the eidetical apriori linked with the coming appearance of the phenomenon which is determined in its essence by the quid that transcends it timelessly . 7 / The problem of the meaning of the being is linked with the end of human action, that is the properly integrating element of the presence. The contingent aspect of action shows an absence of meaning while the eidetical determination of the aim of action gives it an increasing supplement of relative and temporary meaning. 8 / In the very presence there is always absence. It is there that the roots of the dynamism of the relational reality as well as the transcendence of the absolute can be found. 9 / Following in a certain way the principle of the negative theology , it is philosophically possible – subject to paradox – to assert the absolute transcendence of the divine which is at the same time absolute immanence.10 / A rethinking of the religious dimension of human life could be an important task assigned to contemporary philosophy. (shrink)

The article scrutinizes four groups of words based on common lexical morphemes. The material for the inquiry was gathered from large Polish dictionaries. Consequently, the construing procedure could evolve both synchronically and diachronically. The synchronic examination brought to light various emotional and semantic connections between the words in question, and indicated a field of the strongest links of synonymy. This field is constituted by the senses of the words: “etyka”, “moralnośc”, “obyczajność” and “obyczajowość”, which roughly correspond to the English “ethics”, (...) “morals”, “decency” and “good manners”. Certain other semantic fields of looser integration have also been shown. The diachronic examination concerned language shifts. The words: “obyczaj” and “zwyczaj” and all their derivatives had been in use before 16th century. The words “etyka” and “moralność” came to use in the centuries 16th through 18th, and fully spread afterwards. (shrink)

Question: Where, when and under what circumstances did the two of you get to know each other?Fischer: It was in the early seventies, in Frankfurt, after the dissolution of the gauche proletarienne and while there were still leftist groups in Germany. It must have been 1972. Question: Was that a private visit?Glucksmann: We had private discussions. We also participated in rallies and demonstrations.Question: That was in the late phase of the student movement.Fischer: We kept in contact through my old room-mate, (...) Daniel Cohn-Bendit. He was our link to France, so to speak.Question: And was this the link between the French and the German Left that existed then? (shrink)

In this article we study several reduction principles in the context of Simpson’s set theory ATR0S\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$ATR_{0}^{S}$$\end{document} and Kripke-Platek set theory KP (with infinity). Since ATR0S\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$ATR_{0}^{S}$$\end{document} is the set-theoretic version of ATR0 there is a direct link to second order arithmetic and the results for reductions over ATR0S\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$ATR_{0}^{S}$$\end{document} are as expected and more or (...) less straightforward. However, over KP we obtain several interesting new results and are lead to some open questions. (shrink)

Starting from the observation that data sharing in general and sharing of reusable behavioral data in particular is still scarce in psychology, we set out to develop a curation standard for behavioral psychological research data rendering data reuse more effective and efficient. Specifically, we propose a standard that is oriented toward the requirements of the psychological research process, thus considering the needs of researchers in their role as data providers and data users. To this end, we suggest that researchers should (...) describe their data on three documentation levels reflecting researchers’ central decisions during the research process. In particular, these levels describe researchers’ decisions on the concrete research design that is most suitable to address the corresponding research question, its operationalization as well as a precise description of the subsequent data collection and analysis process. Accordingly, the first documentation level represents, for instance, researchers’ decision on the concrete hypotheses, inclusion/exclusion criteria and the number of measurement points as well as a conceptual presentation of all substantial variables included in the design. On the second level these substantial variables are presented within an extended codebook allowing for the linkage between the conceptual research design and the actually operationalized variables as presented within the data. Finally, the third level includes all materials, data preparation and analyses scripts as well as a detailed procedure graphic that allows the data user to link the information from all three documentation levels at a single glance. After a comprehensive presentation of the standard, we will offer some arguments for its integration into the psychological research process. (shrink)

A comprehensive model for describing various forms of developments in science is defined in precise, set-theoretic terms, and in the spirit of the structuralist approach in the philosophy of science. The model emends previous accounts in centering on single systems in a homogenous way, eliminating notions which essentially refer to sets of systems. This is achieved by eliminating the distinction between theoretical and non-theoretical terms as a primitive, and by introducing the notion of intended links. The force of the model (...) is demonstrated by formally incorporating many of the important, precise meta-theoretic concepts occurring in the literature. (shrink)

Global crises such as the climate crisis require fast concerted action, but individual and structural barriers prevent a socio-ecological transformation in crucial areas such as the mobility sector. An identification with people all over the world and an openness toward less consumption may represent psychological drivers of a socio-ecological transformation. We examined the compatibility of both concepts as well as their relation to people’s support of a decarbonised mobility system and their flight mobility behaviour – a CO2-intensive behaviour that may (...) be particularly difficult to refrain from for globally identified people, but less so for sufficiency-oriented people. In an online study conducted in Germany, we found that global identity and sufficiency orientation were positively related. Both were negatively related to past flight-related CO2 emissions and positively related to refraining from flying and the support of decarbonised mobility policies. Accounting for both showed that sufficiency orientation in particular was related to fewer flight-related CO2 emissions and refraining from flying. Furthermore, we examined people’s travel experiences. While global identity was unrelated to the frequency and duration of international travelling, it was positively related to the frequency and quality of contact with local people met on journeys. An experimental variation of whether participants first answered questions on global identity or on travel experiences revealed that remembering past international travelling led to higher reported levels of global identity. Taken together, global identity seems to profit from in-depth international contact with people, but can be decoupled from resource-intensive travel behaviour. Globally identified and sufficiency-oriented people may support a socio-ecological transformation. Our results indicate a compatibility of global identity and sufficiency orientation. Experimental and longitudinal research should examine causal links to foster our understanding of the conditions under which both can be strengthened. (shrink)

The link between leadership and mental health at the workplace is well established by prior research. However, most of the studies have addressed this relationship from a single-source perspective. The aim of this study was to examine how supervisor and employee ratings of health-oriented leadership correspond to each other and which sources are predictive for employee mental health. We assessed data within 99 teams containing 713 employees in 11 different companies in Southern Germany. Supervisors and their staff completed questionnaires (...) on the supervisors’ health-oriented staff-care dimensions awareness, value of health and health behavior and current mental distress. Hierarchical linear models revealed that supervisors’ self-ratings were significantly related to their employees’ ratings only on the health behavior dimension, but not on the health awareness and value of health dimensions. Also, supervisors rated themselves significantly higher on HoL compared to their employees. Employee ratings of HoL significantly predicted their own level of mental distress, whereas supervisor ratings of HoL did not predict employees’ mental distress at the team level. Supervisors’ self-ratings of HoL did not influence the relationship between employee ratings of HoL and their mental distress on an individual level. These results highlight the complex relationship between multisource assessments of HoL and employee mental health, emphasizing the importance of subjective perception for mental health. Future studies should investigate under which conditions supervisor and employee ratings correspond to each other and are predictive for mental health at the workplace. (shrink)

There are strong links between astrobiology and environmental concern. Astrobiology is the study of the origin, evolution and distribution of life in the universe—including Earth. Understanding life, and in particular the basic conditions for life, is important for our ability to create a sustainable future on Earth. The connection goes both ways, however. The preservation of biodiversity and of pristine environments on Earth is of the greatest importance for our ability to study life, its origin, distribution and future. Of special (...) interest from an astrobiology perspective is the preservation of areas with conditions that can serve as analogues to extraterrestrial environments, areas with conditions similar to those under which life originated on Earth, and in general environments where extreme adaptations can be studied. Astrobiology also presents some direct environmental challenges that need to be considered, namely in the form of forward and back contamination. Both issues need to be approached from a technical perspective, but also from a societal perspective. And both must be understood within a broader context of ensuring the sustainability of practices, both scientific and commercial. (shrink)

Philosophy of Science: A Unified Approach combines a general introduction to philosophy of science with an integrated survey of all its important subfields. As the book’s subtitle suggests, this excellent overview is guided methodologically by "a unified approach" to philosophy of science: behind the diversity of scientific fields one can recognize a methodological unity of the sciences. This unity is worked out in this book, revealing all the while important differences between subject areas. Structurally, this comprehensive book offers a two-part (...) approach, which makes it an excellent introduction for students new to the field and a useful resource for more advanced students. Each chapter is divided into two sections. The first section assumes no foreknowledge of the subject introduced, and the second section builds upon the first by bringing into the conversation more advanced, complementary topics. Definitions, key propositions, examples and figures overview all of the core material. At the end of every chapter there are selected readings and exercises . The book also includes a comprehensive bibliography and an index. (shrink)

The papers collected in this volume represent the main body of research arising from the International Munich Centenary Conference in 2001, which commemorated ...

The volume contains the written versions of all papers given at the workshop, divided into five chapters and followed by Alvin Goldman's replies in the sixth.

Giuseppe Gallis konsequentes Streben nach einer angemessenen Berücksichtigung beider Pole, des Subjektpols ebenso wie des Objektpols, sowohl in der Forschung als auch in allen Bereichen des menschlichen Lebens kommt im vorliegenden Sammelband in allen Arbeiten zum Tragen. Galli eröffnet damit auch neue Felder f8r die gestalttheoretische Forschungs- und Anwendungspraxis. Er erschließt Themen, die nicht zuletzt auch f8r die medizinischen, philosophischen, psychologischen und psychotherapeutischen Aufgabenstellungen zentral sind. Er plädiert nicht nur allgemein für einen dialogischen Ansatz in der zwischenmenschlichen Begegnung, er führt (...) in einer Reihe von Aufsätzen in diesem Sammelband auch sehr konkret die Fruchtbarkeit eines solchen Dialogs mit der Gedankenwelt eines Norbert Elias, Szvetan Todorovic und Paul Ricoeur für eine Bereicherung und Weiterentwicklung der Gestalttheorie vor Augen. (shrink)

By “the” modal fallacy one commonly means the following argument pattern.

Strong notions of free will are closely connected to the possibility to do otherwise as well as to an agent’s ability to causally influence her environment via her decisions controlling her actions. In this paper we employ techniques from the causal modeling literature to investigate whether a notion of free will subscribing to one or both of these requirements is compatible with naturalistic views of the world such as non-reductive physicalism to the background of determinism and indeterminism. We argue that (...) from a causal modeler’s perspective the only possibility to get both requirements consists in subscribing to reductive physicalism and indeterminism. (shrink)