Índice del número colectivo Minga-Mutirão de Revistas Latinoamericanas de Teología 2013, «A los 40 años de la Teología de la Liberación: balance y futuro» VIGIL, José Maria. Presentación . BARROS, Marcelo; VIGIL, José Maria. Anunciaron su muerte, ¡pero está bien viva! Teología de la Liberación 40 años: balance y perspectivas . SUSIN, Luiz Carlos, Secretario Executivo do Foro Mundial de Teologia e Libertação, Porto Alegre, Brasil, Teologia da Libertação: de onde viemos, para onde vamos? ALMEIDA, Antonio José de (...) , Teologia da Libertação e transições eclesiasis pendentes para o futuro. ARAGÃO, Gilbraz, Recife, Brasil, A Libertação se desdobra em diálogo. Teologia da Libertação e pluralismo religioso. BARROS, Marcelo, Recife, Brasil, Para una teología bolivariana de la Liberación. Teología de la Liberación y Patria Grande hoy . SCHIAVO, Luigi, San José, Costa Rica , Tiempos oscuros, tiempos de monstruos. Teología de la Liberación y nuevos desafíos culturales. OSORIO, Sergio, Bogotá, Colombia , Una nueva dimensión epistemológica para la teología. La Teología de la Liberación y el desafío epistemológico. RODRIGUES SILVA Marcos, Coordenador da Comissão de Teologia Afro da ASETT, Teologia Afro (ou Negra) da Libertação: balanço e perspectivas. TOMICHÁ, Roberto, Cochabamba, Bolivia, Teologías de la liberación indígenas. VÉLEZ, Consuelo, Coordinadora de la Comisión de Teología Feminista de la ASETT, Universidad Xaveriana, Bogotá, Colombia, Teología feminista latinoamericana de la Liberación: balance y futuro. KERBER, Guillermo : Teología de la liberación y movimiento ecuménico. CASTILLO, Jorge, panameño profesor de teología en la Universidad de Nijmegen, Holanda, Teología de la liberación y «cristianismo mundial». VIGIL, José María, Panamá, Panamá, Teología de la Liberación en camino hacia nuevos paradigmas. (shrink)

Resumen El autor confiesa que pertenece a la generación que ha dedicado su vida a implementar la herencia del Concilio Vaticano II, generación que ha tenido a ese concilio como el punto de referencia más importante - eclesialmente hablando - en los últimos 40 años. Sin embargo, aventura la hipótesis de que la problemática del Vaticano II ha quedado ya obsoleta, y lo justifica presentando tres olas de nuevos signos de los tiempos que han transformado radicalmente el panorama teológico y (...) pastoral: la teología de la liberación, el pluralismo religioso y la crisis de la religión. El artículo trata de las grandes olas que avalan esa superación: la teología y la espiritualidad de la liberación, la teología del pluralismo religioso y la revisión de paradigma que provoca la actual crisis de la religión. Estas tres "superaciones" del Vaticano II son, pues, las que nos permiten pensar que lo que se dirimió en el Concilio ya no es el punto de referencia principal de la vida de la Iglesia, ni de las necesidades religiosas más urgentes de la Humanidad. Palabras clave: Concilio Vaticano II; Cambio de paradigma; Teología de la liberación; Pluralismo religioso; Crisis de la religión.The author belongs to the generation that has dedicated its life to implement the heritage of Vatican Council II, and has taken that Council as the most relevant point of reference, in ecclesiastical terms, for the last 40 years. However, he formulates the hypothesis that the problematics of Vatican II has become obsolete, and justifies that viewpoint presenting three new waves that have transformed radically the theological and pastoral panorama: the theology of liberation, religious pluralism and the crisis in religion. The article focuses on the signs that support such surpassing: the theology and spirituality of liberation, the theology of religious pluralism and the review of paradigms that has brought about the current crisis in religion. Those three signs of "surpassing" Vatican II, therefore, make us think that what was rendered void in the Council is no longer the main point of reference of Church life, nor of mankind's most urgent religious needs. Key words: Vatican Council II; Shift of paradigm; Theology of liberation; Religious pluralism; Crisis of religion. (shrink)

La “Teología del pluralismo religioso” (TPR) no es una teología “sectorial”, o “de genitivo”, que teologizara temas nuevos dentro de la “universa theologia”. O sea, la TPR no agranda cuantitativamente el campo de la teología. Hace su aportación, pero cualitativamente: trata los mismos temas, pero bajo una luz distinta, con otra pertinencia, otro “objeto formal”. Es una teología que replantea todo desde otra perspectiva, con otro ordenamiento, a partir de otro “paradigma”. Por eso, los desafíos de esta teología son fuertes. (...) Grandes perspectivas generales nunca antes cuestionadas, se derrumban ahora, y surgen otras nuevas, desafiantes. El autor se centra en una selección de los principales cambios que producen esos desafíos actuales. Los aborda y trata de justificarlos, mostrando en cada caso sus implicaciones para la reflexión teológica y para la vida cristiana. El paso de una valoración negativa del pluralismo a otra positiva, la nueva comprensión de la Revelación, la superación y hasta el abandono de la categoría de “elección”, las principales propuestas de cambio en campos tan sensibles como los de la cristología, la eclesiología y la moral, así como la transformación de la misión son las cuestiones de esto breve estudio. Palabras clave: Pluralismo; Cambio de paradigma; Pluralismo de principio; Elección; Inclusivismo; Misión. ABSTRACT The Theology of religious pluralism (TRP) is not “a sectorial” theology or “a genitive theology”, which would theologize new subjects, that is to say one more field inside the “universa theologia”. In other words, it does offer a quantitative novelty instead of a qualitative one. TRP deals with the same subjects, but from another point of view, another “formal object”. Everything is retrieved from another order, point of view, and “paradigm”. In this way, challenges seem to be huge. Great general perspectives that have never been are effected and new challenges reappear. The author works on the selection of main changes that produce current challenges. Such Challenges are presented and justified, showing in each case its implications for theological reflexion and well as for Christian life. The core of this brief study refers to the shift of a negative to a positive evaluation of the religious pluralism, a new understanding of the Revelation, the overcoming and the abandon of the category of the “election”, the main challenges in the sensible field of christology and moral, as well as the transformation of the mission. Key words: Pluralism; Shift of paradigm; Pluralism of principle; Election; Inclusivismo; Mission. (shrink)

Dossier: Post-religional Paradigm Editorial - Vol. 13, no. 37, Jan./Mar. 2015.

KOINONIA/ASETT MINGA/MUTIRÃO DE REVISTAS DE TEOLOGIA LATINO-AMERICANAS Teología de la Liberación en camino hacia nuevos paradigmas (Liberation Theology towards new paradigms).

El llamado «nuevo paradigma arqueológico bíblico» verá consolidado el aprecio que le tengan la teología y las ciencias de la religión en la medida en que sus descubrimientos se vayan aplicando a los principales temas bíblicos, histórico-religiosos y teológicos. Una de estas aplicaciones es la que acaba de darse en un modo significativo con la publicación del libro de Thomas Römer, L’invention de Dieu, que viene a ser en este momento el mejor resumen de los hallazgos –y cuestionamientos– que la (...) nueva arqueología puede aportarnos hoy acerca del Dios bíblico.En un primer momento, este artículo resume las novedades más destacadas de la nueva visión sobre el Dios bíblico desde la perspectiva de la nueva arqueología, tal como aparecen en el libro de Römer, y en un segundo momento trata de poner de relieve algunas consecuencias y sugerencias, tanto en el plano teórico cuanto en el práctico-pedagógico. (shrink)

Minga de revistas latinoamericanas (Collective Issue of Latin American Theological Journals) Número colectivo sobre «2012-2015: Cincuenta años del Vaticano II» Un servicio animado por la Comisión Teológica Latinoamericana de la ASETT - DOI: 10.5752/P.2175-5841.2011v9n24p1204.

Resumen: Partiendo de la idea de que el Vaticano II quiso ser un diálogo con la modernidad, el autor comienza señalado (el «ver» en la medotología latinoamericana) los grandes cambios de paradigma que se han sucedido en estos 50 años posteriores al Concilio: la revolución de la posmodernidad, el despertar de la conciencia política y la irrupción de la teología de la liberación, la nueva conciencia pluralista, el descubrimiento de la ecología profunda, la crisis de las «religiones agrarias» en un (...) mundo que parece querer entrar en un mundo «post-religioso», y la transformación de la epistemología religiosa tradicional. En un segundo momento («juzgar») analiza lo que sucedió con el Vaticano II y el posconcilio: las transformaciones que propuso, la oposición que fue creciendo apoyándose en el propio poder jerárquico institucional, y el impase de la actual falta de diálogo. En una tercera parte («actuar») el autor propone unas pistas interpretativas como la mejor forma de aportar a una situación eclesial actual que parece no tener salida. Palabras clave: Diagnóstico teológico. Vaticano II. Concilio. Iglesia. Futuro. Cambio de Paradigma: Starting from the idea that Vatican II wanted to stablish a dialogue with the modernity, the author starts pointing out (the «see», in the Latin American methodology) the big changes of paradigm which have taken place in these last 50 years after the Council: the revolution of pos-modernity, the waking up of the politic conscienceand the irruption of the theology of Liberation, the new conscience of cultural and religious pluralism, the discovery of the depp ecology, the crisis of the «agrarian religions» in a world which seems to want enter into e post-religious world, and the transformation of the traditional religious epistemology. In a second moment («judge») analizes what happened in the Vatican II and the pos-council: the transformations it proposed, the growing oposition, taking advantage in the jrearquical institutional power, and the current impasse of the lack of dialogue. In the third part («act»), the author proposes some interpretative tracks, as the best way to contribute to this current ecclesial situation which seems not to have way out. Keywords: Theological diagnosis. Vatican II. Councile. Church. Future. Paradigm Changes. - DOI: 10.5752/P.2175-5841.2011v9n24p1368. (shrink)

José María Vigil y Antonio Caso fueron dos defensores de la democracia liberal y de la posibilidad de un limitado, aunque efectivo, manejo consciente de los asuntos públicos y sociales dentro de los contextos adversos de México durante la administración de Porfirio Díaz y en el periodo post-revolucionario. Ambos autores basan sus posiciones en una crítica concerniente al positivismo y al determinismo social, que apuntaría hacia una manera de pensar muy distante del pensamiento subjetivista, aunque muy cercana a un (...) “realismo directo” epistemológico que establece que el mundo no es de hecho una construcción subjetiva o intersubjetiva que debe interpretarse subjetiva o intersubjetivamente. Sin embargo, esto no es algo que pueda saberse a través de una copia mental o representación de sus entidades y procesos. Tal vez el defensor más evocador del realismo directo en la historia ha sido el filósofo escocés del siglo XVIII, Thomas Reid, un gran representante del “sensocomunismo” explícitamente recuperado por Vigil y reivindicado tácitamente por Antonio Caso. (shrink)

Minga-Mutirão de Revistas de Teologia Latino-americanas Anunciaram a morte, mas está bem viva, obrigado! Teologia da Libertação 40 anos depois ( Death was announced, but it is alive. Thanks! Liberation Theology 40 years later).

Recension: LÓPEZ VIGIL, Maria; LÓPEZ VIGIL, José Ignacio. Just Jesus. New York: Crossroads, 1997. [LÓPEZ VIGIL, Maria; LÓPEZ VIGIL, José Ignacio. Un tal Jesús . Salamanca: Lóguez Ediciones, 1982] LÓPEZ VIGIL, Maria; LÓPEZ VIGIL, José Ignacio. Outro Dios es posible: 100 entrevistas exclusivas con Jesucristo en su segunda venida a la Tierra. Quito: Gráficas Silva, 2008.

In this paper, I argue that the certainty about the wrongness of killing must not be considered as a universal, but as a local one. Initially, I show that there exist communities in which the wrongness of killing innocents is not a moral certainty and that this kind of case cannot be justified by arguing that such people are psychopaths. Lastly, I argue that universal certainties do not admit of exceptions: thus, the fact that some exceptional cases affect the certainty (...) that killing innocents is wrong, leads me to conclude that it is a local certainty. (shrink)

Literature on indoctrination has focused on imparting and revising beliefs, but it has hardly considered the way of teaching and acquiring certainties—in Wittgenstein’s sense. Therefore, the role played by rationality in the acquisition of our linguistic practices has been overestimated. Furthermore, analyses of the relationship between certainty and indoctrination contain major errors. In this paper, the clarification of the aforementioned issues leads me to suggest the avoidance of the term ‘indoctrination’ so as to avoid focusing on the suitability of the (...) case to the concept rather than on the analysis of the case itself. This should facilitate that the process of helping children to acquire a world-picture—by teaching them to ignore alternatives to certainties—is definitely accepted as normal and natural, for many beliefs are expected to end up becoming ungrounded certainties not only in the medium or long term, but also, and above all, in the short term. (shrink)

After describing Wittgenstein's notion of ‘certainty’, in this article I provide four arguments to demonstrate that no certainty can be acquired at will. Specifically, I argue that, in order to assimilate a certainty, it is irrelevant whether the individual concerned has found a ground that seemingly justifies that certainty; has a given mental state; is willing to accept the certainty on the proposal of a persuader; or tries to act according to the certainty involved. Lastly, I analyse how each of (...) these arguments is reflected in the way children acquire certainties. (shrink)

Wittgenstein scholars have tended to interpret the acquisition of certainties, and by extension, of a world-picture, as the achievement of a state in which these certainties are assimilated in a seemingly unconscious way as one masters language-games. However, it has not been stressed that the attainment of this state often involves facing a series of challenges or difficulties which must be overcome for the development of the world-picture and therefore the socialization process to be achieved. After showing, on the one (...) hand, how a world-picture is usually developed, and on the other hand, why a child who seemingly found itself trapped in a precocious skepticism might have serious problems in assimilating certainties, in this paper, I describe some of the challenges children often meet as they acquire a world-picture. Since the overcoming of these challenges is often needed for children to develop a world-picture, I aim at raising the awareness of the necessity of ‘learning to believe’, that is, of developing a series of skills that allow children to undertake the challenges described in this paper. (shrink)

It is expected that children increasingly learn to identify errors throughout their schooling process and even before it. As a further step, however, some scholars have suggested how a culture of error should be implemented in the classroom for the student to be able not only to locate errors but also, and above all, to learn from them. Yet the various proposals aimed at generating a culture of error in the classroom keep regarding error as all those responses and reactions (...) that are not considered as true or correct in each specific case, thereby not realizing that many of these alleged errors are really anomalies with very different characteristics and consequences despite their seeming resemblance. In this paper, I rely on Ludwig Wittgenstein’s On Certainty to clarify the difference between errors and anomalies. Subsequently, I provide guidelines that may be adapted by each teacher to her students’ needs and development level in order to foster a culture of error that begins by distinguishing er... (shrink)

This paper presents the concept of ‘religious certainty’ I have developed by drawing inspiration from Wittgenstein’s notion of ‘certainty’. After describing the particular traits of religious certainty, this paper addresses two difficulties derived from this concept. On the one hand, it explains why religious certainty functions as such even though all its consequences are far from being absolutely clear; on the other hand, it clarifies why, unlike the rest of certainties, the loss of religious certainty does not result in the (...) collapse of the world-picture made up of all certainties. Subsequently, it analyzes to what extent the teacher can teach religious certainty by acting as a facilitator for its acquisition–if desired—particularly bearing in mind that religious certainty cannot be attained at will. These basic teaching guidelines have several advantages. First, they make it possible to know the nature of religious certainty even better. Second, and most importantly, the fact of having adopted the perspective of a teacher who tries inculcating a religious certainty contributes to detecting and preventing forms of indoctrination that, arguably, might go unnoticed even when attempting to properly present religious certainty—or rather, this way of being religious—in current schools to foster understanding thereof. (shrink)

Philosophical Investigations, Volume 45, Issue 1, Page 91-97, January 2022.

Though Wittgenstein's On Certainty has been influential in analytic epistemology, its interpretation has been enormously controversial. It is true that exegesis has been mainly concerned with the proper characterization of Wittgenstein's very notion of ?certainty?; however, some important questions remain unanswered regarding this notion. On the one hand, I am above all referring to the study of the possibilities we have of retaining a certainty when it has seemingly been placed into question and, on the other hand, of regaining a (...) certainty once it has been lost. In this paper, I attempt to provide a detailed answer to both questions. In so doing, some important features of the picture of ourselves which emerges from Wittgenstein's On Certainty are also revealed. (shrink)

Algunos autores han intentado considerar los delirios como certezas –entendidas en el sentido de Wittgenstein– debido a las similitudes que parecen existir entre sus respectivos estatus epistemológicos. Sin embargo, dicho intento ha sido criticado con agudeza, entre otras razones, porque el contenido de los delirios choca frontalmente con el contenido de las certezas, por lo que los delirios no pueden ser comprendidos debido a los cambios en las relaciones de significado. Pero es evidente que, aunque los delirios no se puedan (...) contemplar como certezas, muchos delirios afectan de un modo u otro al sistema de certezas del paciente. Partiendo de esta base, no es descabellado pensar que dicha influencia pudiera ser también recíproca: en otras palabras, parece sumamente recomendable analizar si algunos delirios se podrían contemplar como el resultado de variaciones en certezas. En este artículo llevo a cabo dicho análisis al intentar mostrar que el origen de algunos delirios pedestres y severos puede ser hallado en lo que llamaré “ceguera a posibilidades” e “incertidumbre”, términos que he desarrollado teniendo en cuenta la obra del filósofo Ludwig Wittgenstein. (shrink)

Wittgenstein’s conception of ‘persuasion’, understood as the persuader’s attempt to modify the persuadee’s certainties, has been recently misinterpreted by some scholars. For Persichetti has overlooked the fact that one cannot persuade unintentionally, while Marconi and Perissinotto have not only taken for granted that persuasion consists in the mere transfer of a world-picture or set of certainties to an individual even when she has not alternative or different certainties, but also that education is restricted to persuading or transmitting certainties. After clarifying (...) these misinterpretations, among others, I argue that persuasion is not used for teaching certainties at the outset, but for modifying them when they do not fit the ones expected by the persuader. If it is agreed that education partly consists in transmitting a world-picture, then persuasion constitutes a necessary resource for educators. Lastly, I provide a set of guidelines for teachers to draw attention to the basic aspects of persuasion that they should consider in the classroom. (shrink)

Wide analysis of "María Teresa López de la Vieja, La pendiente resbaladiza. La práctica de la argumentación moral . Madrid y México, D.F.: Plaza y Valdés, 2010, 288 páginas.".

In this paper, I describe the main lines of modern error theory, a systemic theory which regards errors not as the results of someone’s negligence, but as parts of a complex system. Bearing in mind that errors must be considered as such by an observer or attributor, I expose Wittgenstein’s conception of the attributor responsible for discerning if a strange event constitutes an error or an anomaly. Subsequently, I illustrate this conception of the attributor by describing some traits of the (...) role played by many attributors in business organizations, specifically in the production line of a car manufacturer’s plant, when carrying out the rootcause analysis of problems that arise in the plant. Finally, I reveal a paradox whereby if the attributor denies the possibility that anomalies may happen without being able to explain their source within the system that he or she takes as reference, then the very idea of system no longer makes sense. (shrink)

José María Valverde, al repasar su relación personal con la filosofía recuerda como experiencia decisiva para toda su vida intelectual la toma de conciencia de que el pensar y el hablar son una sola cosa. Esto le parece la gran cuestión para la filosofía del siglo XX pero, aunque algunos pensadores la hayan asumido, mejor o peor. no son pocos los que la eluden, quizá porque desde tal perspectiva hay riesgo de ver la filosofía como algo imposible o como «abuso (...) del lenguaje», Nietzsche, el poeta-pensador Valéry, Wittgenstein y Heidegger, entre otros, ilustran este tema, que emplaza hoy no sólo a la filosofía. sino también a toda producción mental organizada sea teología, ciencia, literatura o pensamiento moral y político. (shrink)

En el presente texto se intenta presentar una visión ordenada de la evolución de la pregunta de si es España una nación, y en caso de ser la respuesta afirmativa, si ha sido una nación normal y si es su historia la historia de una decadencia. La preocupación por el tema de “España como problema” se remonta al siglo XVII y llega a nuestros días. Nos detendremos especialmente en las tesis al respecto de Ortega y Gasset y su discípulo Julián (...) Marías. (shrink)

The diversity in colour patterns on butterfly wings provides great potential for understanding how developmental mechanisms may be modulated in the evolution of adaptive traits. In particular, we discuss concentric eyespot patterns, which have been shown by surgical experiments to be formed in response to signals from a central focus. Seasonal polyphenism shows how alternate phenotypes can develop through environmental sensitivity mediated by ecdysteroid hormones, whereas artificial selection and single gene mutants demonstrate genetic variation influencing the number, shape, size, position, (...) and colour composition of the eyespots. The expression patterns of the regulatory gene Distal-less reveal that these changes can arise at several different developmental stages, and the phenotypes indicate that some forms of changed pattern may occur much more readily than others. Further study of the genes, of the developmental mechanisms, and of the functions of the patterns will provide novel insights about the evolution of morphological diversity. BioEssays 21:391–401, 1999. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (shrink)

Este libro nos presenta un «Ortega desde dentro», es decir, no como él había observado a Goethe, con catalejo, sino reconstruido a base de sus testimonios personales esparcidos en artículos, libros, cartas, clases y conferencias, a los que habría que sumar los que sobre él dejaron familiares, colaboradores, discípulos, amigos y enemigos. Estamos pues ante una biografía con ropaje autobiográfico, no sólo de su persona, sino también de su obra, íntimamente unidas a la España de la primera mitad del siglo (...) xx, a la que quiso guiar bajo los más diversos regímenes antes de ser arrastrado por su tragedia como nación. En cierto modo, es la historia de un amor imposible, porque la España que soñó no existía y puede que ni siquiera llegue a existir. Sin embargo y paradójicamente, también es la historia de cómo Ortega, al iluminar sus carencias, logró dejar su impronta en ella. (shrink)

Among the elements which have gradually been complicating the countless representations of the Virgin Mary throughout history, this paper seeks to highlight and interpret conceptually one of special doctrinal significance in some Marian images during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries: the temple, in whose interior some artists place some actual or symbolic episodes of Mary, from her birth or her Annunciation to the Sacra Conversazione, to give a few examples. Even though at first sight it looks as a mere scenographic (...) or ornamental ingredient, without iconographic value, this precise shape of temple reveals in fact some profound Mariological and Christological meanings. In that order of ideas, this essay is based on a double methodological strategy: first and foremost, to analyze some Marian images which include in the aforementioned period the shape of a temple, in order to see what kind of role such a religious building plays in them; secondly, to discover the relevant keys for interpreting such images, by analyzing some specific texts of the Church Fathers and medieval theologians who identify with Mary the figure of the «temple of God». For this reason, after a brief introduction to the problem, the present study is structured into three main parts inextricably intertwined: in the first we comparatively analyze twelve Marian paintings of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries in which the Virgin appears inside a temple; in the second we explain the many exegesis that, in a consistent and strong patristic and theological tradition, identify the analogy of the templum Dei directly with the Virgin Mary, or indirectly with the Christ’s human body conceived in her womb; on the basis of this double analysis of images and exegetical writings, the third part of the paper states as a synthetic conclusion that the artistic representation of a temple or a church building in some Marian images of this period offers a compelling plastic metaphor of Mary and, ultimately, of her virginal divine motherhood. (shrink)

Hegel's main criticisms of Spinoza are well‐known both among Spinoza and Hegel scholars. The role of Spinozism in Hegel's conception of philosophy turns out to be significantly more crucial than the rest of philosophies. This chapter argues that Spinoza's acosmism constitutes for Hegel the necessary condition for the rise and development of philosophy, and hence for the realization of human freedom, insofar as philosophy is the highest form of human freedom. It outlines the general conception of philosophy behind Hegel's statement (...) that Spinozism constitutes “the essential beginning of all philosophizing.” In Hegel's view, the greatness of Spinozism lies precisely in the radical de‐substantialization of finite things that it carries out, that is, in its acosmism.” Spinoza's acosmism clears the ground for the free exercise and unfolding of philosophical thinking. (shrink)

The Gelman case entails the conviction of Uruguay for violation of the rights to recognition of legal personality, to life, to personal integrity and to personal liberty; to the family, to the name, to the rights of children and to nationality, to the protection of the family, to judicial guarantees and judicial protection and has failed to comply with the obligation to adapt its domestic law to the American Convention on Human Rights. Protected by the democratic legitimacy of the referendums (...) that validated the Expiry Law, Uruguay has extended impunity for the crimes of the dictatorship by not executing the sentence. The author criticizes the validity of these exculpatory arguments based on various reasons. (shrink)

Traducción, selección y estudio preliminar José María Felipe Mendoza * Edición bilingüe. Se recomienda descargar el PDF para visualizar mejor la traducción y el original en paralelo.

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:American Journal of Philology 121.3 (2000) 453-478 [Access article in PDF] Plutarch's Lysander and Sulla: Integrated Characters in Roman Historical Perspective José María Candau Morón The term ritratto paradossale has been used to describe a formula of character portrayal seen in Latin literature of the first centuries B.C. and A.D. whose basic process consists in combining in one character apparently contradictory traits (La Penna 1976). To be precise, the (...) formula produced a type of man who in his moments of action shows energy, diligence, and constancy but exhibits licentious feelings, allows himself to be taken in by indolence, and succumbs to pleasures when his negotia are finished. This model may already have been present in Greek historical literature of the fourth century B.C., as the portrait of Philip II that the historian Theopompus delineates seems to bear this stamp. The public image of Maecenas and the Petronius of Tacitus are two clear examples of ritratto paradossale. The figure of Sulla also falls under this influence; in fact, according to La Penna (1976, 284), Plutarch's biography of Sulla often exhibits these same characteristics.The terms "paradox" and "paradoxical" also occur frequently in works devoted to Plutarch's Life of Lysander. Its paradoxical features are the central point of Pelling's comments (1988a, 268-74) on that biography. Pelling explores aspects of "integration" in the Parallel Lives, a technique of portrayal which he defines as follows: "a man's qualities are brought into some sort of relation with one another, and every trait goes closely with the next." 1 An almost universal literary habit in the [End Page 453] ancient world, integration appears even in a figure as complex and full of contrasts as Plutarch's Lysander. Arrogance and cruelty, incorruptibility and a capacity for adulation, duplicity, ingenuity, ambition, treachery: all the contradictions that coexist in him are seen to be unified through philotimia, a central trait that dominates Lysander's other characteristics and gives his portrayal a unified appearance.But Plutarch's interests in his Life of Lysander do not impel him to explain or reconstruct the traits of its protagonist. It is the contrasts and the paradoxes in Lysander that have drawn the author's attention and lend the biography its particular flavor. Plutarch shows how these diverse character traits work against the individual and end up destroying him. In this way, the biography of Lysander is similar to tragic works in which a character's potentialities unleash forces that ultimately defeat him, and Plutarch explicitly plans on parallelisms with the tragic genre. From this standpoint, Pelling concludes, Lysander offers a moral that is similar to that of tragedy and different from that of other biographies: human nature can produce a figure such as Lysander, and such figures tend to bring about their own destruction through appropriate tragic processes.Stadter (1992) has recently analyzed from start to finish the paradoxical character that Plutarch assigns to Lysander and also to Sulla, the protagonist of the Roman Life presented as his parallel. In Stadter's view the contradictions in each character--that is, the combination of admirable and repulsive traits--form the basis of the portrayal of both subjects. The biographer also contrives to cross the two Lives so as to convey that they form an ensemble. Among other things, we see a type of progression whose upper limit is delineated by the harshest components of the portrayal of Sulla: his destructive nature, bloodthirsty and implacable, his tyrannical and frequently arbitrary conduct, his arrogance and lack of humanity. These traits are only sketched in the parallel Greek Life; yet their presence there evokes sinister dimensions which horrify when they appear, full-blown, in the Roman counterpart. From this interplay of traits and personalities our understanding of the human type treated in the biographies becomes increasingly deep. The final result in the present instance is that we are enabled to recognize the true traits of Lysander's character, and so escape the difficulty that Plutarch alludes to in his prologue through a cryptic... (shrink)