Socrates

The life of Socrates (circa 470–399 BCE) was already shrouded in mystery and subject to speculation by the time of Aristotle. The earliest recorded uses of the adjective “Socratic” (Σωκρατικός) appear in Aristotle’s works. He employs the term twice to reference Socrates’ theories or aspects of his philosophical method (Eudemian Ethics VIII.1, 1246b34; Rhetoric II.20, 1393b4), twice in relation to the genre of λόγοι (Rhetoric III.16, 1417a21; Poetics 1, 1447b11), and once explicitly to describe the genre of διάλογοι (fr. 61 Rose). Socrates might have quickly evolved into a figure of literary fiction and philosophical literature, and the historical Socrates may have had little in common with this posthumous creation—or, perhaps, each writer portrayed him through the lens of their own philosophical and literary aims. The Socrates of Plato’s dialogues might reflect an idealized figure rather than the man himself. Plato emphasized Socrates’ recognition of his own ignorance (Apology 19d, 22e–23a, and 33a–b; Symposium 216d–c) and his refusal to settle on universal definitions, suggesting a profound commitment to the process of questioning rather than the achievement of definitive answers. This Socrates used refutation (elenchus) to challenge his interlocutors as a purifying agent, eradicating false knowledge (Sophist 230b–e). His belief that the gods could not harm humanity (Republic II, 379b) reflects a broader moral optimism and faith in divine benevolence. By contrast, the Socrates of Xenophon appears far more pragmatic and straightforward. Unlike Plato’s portrayal, Xenophon’s Socrates neither declared himself ignorant nor relied on irony. Instead, he explicitly presented himself as a teacher of virtue, emphasizing self-knowledge and the recognition of one’s own limits (Memorabilia I.7.4; III.7; IV.2.25–29). His approach was less combative—eschewing refutation altogether (Memorabilia I.4)—and his view of the gods was markedly different: Xenophon’s Socrates believed they could, in fact, harm humans (Memorabilia I.4.16). For a thorough comparison between the two portrayals of Socrates, see L.-A. Dorion (2004), Socrate. Paris: PUF, pp. 96–111. For Aristophanes, Socrates was a subject of ridicule rather than reverence. In The Clouds, he is mocked as an absurd and impractical thinker, detached from the realities of everyday life. Yet, ironically, the same society that derided him would immortalize him through his trial and execution. His death at the hands of Athens’ restored democracy in 399 BCE elevated him into something far greater: a martyr for philosophical inquiry and a timeless symbol of integrity. Ultimately, it remains uncertain how closely any of these portrayals align with the historical Socrates. What survives is not a single, definitive figure but rather a complex mosaic shaped by the perspectives, agendas, and imaginations of those who wrote about him.

For Plato's Socrates, consult Plato. Complete Works. Edited by John M. Cooper and D. S. Hutchinson, Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1997. For Xenophon's Socrates, see Dorion, L.-A., and Bandini, M. Xénophon : Mémorables, vol. 1 : Introduction générale et Livre I [Introduction, translation, and notes by L.-A. Dorion; Textual history and Greek text by M. Bandini], Paris, 2000; and Dorion, L.-A., and Bandini, M. Xénophon : Mémorables, vol. 2 : Livres II et III; vol. 3 : Livres IV et Annexes, Paris (forthcoming). For Aristophanes' Socrates, consult Hadas, Moses. The Complete Plays of Aristophanes. New York: Bantam Books, 1981. For the "Socratics question," see Dorion, L.-A. “À l’origine de la question socratique et de la critique du témoignage de Xénophon : l’étude de Schleiermacher sur Socrate,” Dionysius 19 (1815), pp. 51–74.