Despite the importance of human blood to clinical practice and research, hematology and blood transfusion data remain scattered throughout a range of disparate sources. This lack of systematization concerning the use and definition of terms poses problems for physicians and biomedical professionals. We are introducing here the Blood Ontology, an ongoing initiative designed to serve as a controlled vocabulary for use in organizing information about blood. The paper describes the scope of the Blood Ontology, its stage of development and some (...) of its anticipated uses. (shrink)

The present work is motivated by two questions. (1) What should an intuitionistic epistemic logic look like? (2) How should one interpret the knowledge operator in a Kripke-model for it? In what follows we outline an answer to (2) and give a model-theoretic definition of the operator K. This will shed some light also on (1), since it turns out that K, defined as we do, fulfills the properties of a necessity operator for a normal modal logic. The interest of (...) our construction also lies in a better insight into the intuitionistic solution to Fitch's paradox, which is discussed in the third section. In particular we examine, in the light of our definition, De Vidi and Solomon's proposal of formulating the verification thesis as Φ → ¬¬KΦ. We show, as our main result, that this definition excapes the paradox, though it is validated only under restrictive conditions on the models. (shrink)

Core principles of mereology have been questioned by appealing to time travel scenarios. This paper questions the methodology of employing time travel scenarios to argue against mereology. We show some time travel scenarios are structurally equivalent to more standard ones not involving time travel; and that the three main theories about persistence through time can each solve both the time travel scenario as well as the structurally similar classical scenario. Time travel scenarios that are not similar to more standard arguments (...) are instead problematic because they are open to different, incompatible interpretations. We conclude that compared to the classical arguments against mereological principles, time travel scenarios do not add anything new. (shrink)

During the first months of 1887, while completing the drafts of his Mitteilungen zur Lehre vom Transfiniten, Georg Cantor maintained a continuous correspondence with Benno Kerry. Their exchange essentially concerned two main topics in the philosophy of mathematics, namely, (a) the concept of natural number and (b) the infinitesimals. Cantor's and Kerry's positions turned out to be irreconcilable, mostly because of Kerry's irremediably psychologistic outlook, according to Cantor at least. In this study, I will examine and reconstruct the main points (...) in the discussion around (a) and (b) and stress some interesting aspects of the philosophical and mathematical thought of Benno Kerry. (shrink)

The paper attempts to give a solution to the Fitch's paradox though the strategy of the reformulation of the paradox in temporal logic, and a notion of knowledge which is a kind of ceteris paribus modality. An analogous solution has been offered in a different context to solve the problem of metaphysical determinism.

Reformulation strategies for solving Fitch’s paradox of knowability date back to Edgington. Their core assumption is that the formula \, from which the paradox originates, does not correctly express the intended meaning of the verification thesis, which should concern possible knowledge of actual truths, and therefore the contradiction does not represent a logical refutation of verificationism. Supporters of these solutions claim that can be reformulated in a way that blocks the derivation of the paradox. Unfortunately, these reformulation proposals come with (...) other problems, on both the logical and the philosophical side. We claim that in order to make the reformulation idea consistent and adequate one should analyze the paradox from the point of view of a quantified modal language. An approach in this line was proposed by, among others, Kvanvig but was not fully developed in its technical details. Here we approach the paradox by means of a first order hybrid modal logic, a tool that strikes us as more adequate to express transworld reference and the rigidification needed to consistently express this idea. The outcome of our analysis is ambivalent. Given a first order formula we are able to express the fact that it is knowable in a way which is both consistent and adequate. However, one must give up the possibility of formulating as a substitution free schema of the kind \. We propose that one may instead formulate by means of a recursive translation of the initial formula, being aware that many alternative translations are possible. (shrink)

It is shown that the postulation of a minimum length for the horizons of a black hole leads to lower bounds for the electric charges and magnetic moments of elementary particles. If the minimum length has the order of the Planck scale, these bounds are given, respectively, by the electronic charge and by \. The latter implies that the masses of fundamental particles are bounded above by the Planck mass, and that the smallest non-zero neutrino mass is \eV. A precise (...) estimation in agreement to the area quantisation of Loop Quantum Gravity predicts a mass for the lightest massive state in concordance with flavor oscillation measurements, and a Barbero–Immirzi parameter in accordance to horizon entropy estimations. (shrink)

A Geografia se institucionalizou na segunda metade do século XIX, na Alemanha e na França, como uma ciência empírico-analítica. Entre 1950 e 1970 se constituiu como uma ciência histórico-hermeneútica e, em seguida, como uma ciência crítica. No Brasil, o saber geográfico atravessou diferentes períodos históricos marcados pela ultradireita. Diante disso, procura-se interrogar em que medida, com o retorno ao ultraconservadorismo pós-Golpe de Estado de 2015 no Brasil, o interesse emacipatório que orienta as ações na área da Geografia acadêmica e escolar (...) sofre um desinteresse político em detrimento do interesse técnico e atrelado aos seus saberes? Neste contexto, objetiva-se analisar a relação entre interesse e conhecimento da ciência geográfica em períodos de conservadorismo e antidemocracia.Trata-se de pesquisa bibliográfica, considerando-se a periodização das escolas de pensamento geográfico positivista, funcionalista e crítico-marxista. Foca-se nas aproximações entre o papel da Geografia escolar e o desenvolvimento do campo acadêmico da Geografia. Como resultados, verifica-se quanto às duas primeiras escolas de pensamento uma apropriação política do saber espacial mediante interesses técnico para a construção da identidade nacional, da ideologia patriótica e do desenvolvimentismo, no contexto de governos de ultra-direita ditatoriais. Conclui-se, porém, que com o governo de extremadireita eleito democraticamente mediante em 2018, verifica-se um desinteresse pelo conhecimento geográfico academico, isto é do territorio nacional, e um deficit na perspectiva crítica do ensino nas escolas pela via indultora da BNCC. (shrink)

Este artigo tem o propósito de refletir o problema da morte a partir de uma abordagem da ética hermenêutica. Para isso, consultaremos os seguintes textos de Paul Ricoeur: O problema do fundamento da moral, Philosophie de la volonté - le volontaire et l’involontaire e Vivo até a Morte e O justo II, além dos comentadores desta matéria. O texto está organizado em três tópicos. O primeiro trata das expressões da liberdade como interação do agir humano, o segundo, refletiremos a vida (...) moral a partir das representações sobre a morte como interpelação ao sentido de agir e de existir e, por último abordaremos o objeto da reflexão a respeito da vida, da morte e da liberdade numa compreensão da bioética no pensamento do filósofo francês. (shrink)

Following a Weltanschaaung that involves a concept of life, Hitler has organized one of central chapiters of his autobiography My Struggle, named “Nation and Race”. Three human groups – to know, the founders of culture, the bearers of culture, the destroyers of culture – would be organized as forms of life. These three groups cohabit in competition for the territory of living space. With Hitler´s interpretations, come up then a living economic, that justifies the Total State or the Total War. (...) In front of this horizon, appear critiques as Marcuse, which efforts intend to face the usurpation of concepts as life, nature and racionality by Nazi myth of race and nation. Into this field, Marcuse meets psychoanalysis. Someone considers this meeting as a return to some naturalism too far from the critical exigencies of this time; however, it is possible to insist that this resourse to Freud makes evident a straight critic to a living economic operated from a totalitarian Weltanschauung. (shrink)

Is history more than (in Boswell's words) a `chronological series of remarkable events'? Does it have a pattern? Is it fraught with `meaning'? Can we discern its trends? What determines its course? In short, can a substantial and coherent philosophy of history be devised that offers answers to these questions? These issues, which have intrigued -and bedeviled - historians for centuries, are explored in this thoughtful book.

This paper introduces a multi-agent dynamic epistemic logic for abstract argumentation. Its main motivation is to build a general framework for modelling the dynamics of a debate, which entails reasoning about goals, beliefs, as well as policies of communication and information update by the participants. After locating our proposal and introducing the relevant tools from abstract argumentation, we proceed to build a three-tiered logical approach. At the first level, we use the language of propositional logic to encode states of a (...) multi-agent debate. This language allows to specify which arguments any agent is aware of, as well as their subjective justification status. We then extend our language and semantics to that of epistemic logic, in order to model individuals’ beliefs about the state of the debate, which includes uncertainty about the information available to others. As a third step, we introduce a framework of dynamic epistemic logic and its semantics, which is essentially based on so-called event models with factual change. We provide completeness results for a number of systems and show how existing formalisms for argumentation dynamics and unquantified uncertainty can be reduced to their semantics. The resulting framework allows reasoning about subtle epistemic and argumentative updates—such as the effects of different levels of trust in a source—and more in general about the epistemic dimensions of strategic communication. (shrink)

This paper studies the relation between persuasive argumentation and the speaker’s epistemic attitude. Dung-style abstract argumentation and dynamic epistemic logic provide the necessary tools to characterize the notion of persuasion. Within abstract argumentation, persuasive argumentation has been previously studied from a game-theoretic perspective. These approaches are blind to the fact that, in real-life situations, the epistemic attitude of the speaker determines which set of arguments will be disclosed by her in the context of a persuasive dialogue. This work is a (...) first step to fill this gap. For this purpose we extend one of the logics of Schwarzentruber et al. with dynamic operators, designed to capture communicative phenomena. A complete axiomatization for the new logic via reduction axioms is provided. Within the new framework, a distinction between actual persuasion and persuasion from the speaker’s perspective is made. Finally, we explore the relationship between the two notions. (shrink)

A group is in a state of pluralistic ignorance (PI) if, roughly speaking, every member of the group thinks that his or her belief or desire is different from the beliefs or desires of the other members of the group. PI has been invoked to explain many otherwise puzzling phenomena in social psychology. The main purpose of this article is to shed light on the nature of PI states – their structure, internal consistency and opacity – using the formal apparatus (...) of Dynamic Doxastic Logic, and also to study the sense in which such states are “fragile”, i.e. to identify plausible conditions under which a PI state cascades into a state of shared belief as the result of announcement. (shrink)

Supervaluationism holds that the future is undetermined, and as a consequence of this, statements about the future may be neither true nor false. In the present paper, we explore the novel and quite different view that the future is abundant: statements about the future do not lack truth-value, but may instead be glutty, that is both true and false. We will show that the logic resulting from this “abundance of the future” is a non-adjunctive paraconsistent formalism based on subvaluations, which (...) has the virtue that all classical laws are valid in it, while no formula like φ ∧ ¬φ is satisfiable ; The peculiar behaviour of abundant logical consequence has an illuminating analogy in probability logic; abundance preserves some important features of classical logic when it comes to express those important retrogradations of truth which are presupposed by the argument de praesenti ad praeteritum. (shrink)

The purpose of the present systematic and critical review was to assess the findings and to identify the gaps in the literature concerning gay and bisexual fathers. A comprehensive search of relevant literature using electronic databases and reference lists for articles published until December 2016 was conducted. A total of 63 studies, spanning from 1979 to 2016, were collected. More than half of the studies were published after 2011 and the overwhelming majority were conducted in the United States. Nine themes (...) were identified in the studies reviewed: (1) Pathways to fatherhood; (2) Motivations for fatherhood; (3) Parenting experiences and childrearing; (4) Family life and relationship quality; (5) Gender and father identities and gender-role orientation; (6) Disclosure of sexual identity; (7) Social climate; (8) Father’s psychosocial adjustment; and (9) Children’s psychosocial adjustment. It was found that research on gay fatherhood appears to be more heterogeneous than on lesbian motherhood, perhaps because of the variety of pathways to parenthood (via co-parenting, adoption, fostering, or surrogacy). Two-father families are becoming more visible in research on sexual minority parenting and gradually transforming the conceptualization of parenting in family research. (shrink)

Ética e subjetividade no Budismo chinês contemporâneo Resumo: O presente artigo procura pensar as questões da ética e da subjetividade no contexto do pensamento budista na China contemporânea. Ele parte de uma genealogia do conceito de subjetividade conforme desenvolvido através do debate entre a escola Yogacãra do Budismo indiano e o Novo Confucionismo. Ao mesmo tempo, aponta para as possíveis implicações deste conceito de subjetividade em sua relação com as questões éticas presentes na China contemporânea. Palavras-chave: Ética. Subjetividade. Escola Yogacãra (...) do Budismo indiano. Novo Confucionismo. Ethics and subjectivity in contemporary Chinese Buddhism: This article tries to think the matters of ethics and subjectivity in the context of Buddhist thought in contemporary China. It has its starting point in an analysis of the concept of subjectivity as developed in the debate between the Yogacãra school of indian Buddhism and the New Confucianism. At the same time, it points to the possible implications of this concept of subjectivity for the ethical matters in contemporary chinese society. Keywords: Ethics. Subjectivity. Yogacãra school of indian Buddhism. New Confucianism. Ética y subjetividad en el budismo chino contemporáneo Resumen: Este artículo busca reflexionar sobre cuestiones de ética y subjetividad en el contexto del pensamiento budista en la China contemporánea. Comienza con una genealogía del concepto de subjetividad desarrollado a través del debate entre la escuela Yogacara del budismo indio y el nuevo confucianismo. Al mismo tiempo, señala las posibles implicaciones de este concepto de subjetividad en su relación con los problemas éticos presentes en la China contemporánea. Palabras clave: Ética. Subjetividad. Escuela de yogacara del budismo indio. Nuevo confucianismo. Data de registro: 29/07/2020 Data de aceite: 21/10/2020. (shrink)

RESUMOA climatologia está no centro de um dos debates mais polarizados da atualidade, apresentado como confronto entre os defensores da existência de um aquecimento global antropogênico e aqueles que rejeitam sua existência. A instituição chave para esse tema é o Painel Intergovernamental sobre Mudanças Climáticas, um corpo simultaneamente científico e político. O debate surge aí mesclado com a discussão política sobre as respostas adequadas ao aquecimento global. Mas, rechaçados nesse terreno, os negacionistas transpõem o debate para a mídia, onde mobilizam (...) a pseudociência para deslegitimar as conclusões das disciplinas científicas ligadas ao entendimento do clima. Temos, assim, uma produção consciente da ignorância em larga escala sobre o tema do aquecimento global, demandando o uso da agnotologia para desvendar o mecanismo de produção da ignorância. A climatologia revela-se, então, um campo exemplar para o estudo da inserção histórico-social do conhecimento científico e das tensões e trajetórias conflitivas no seu interior, dos dilemas éticos que coloca e das possibilidades universalistas do conhecimento científico na era da tecnociência. ABSTRACTClimatology is at the center of one of the most polarized debates of today. It is presented as a confrontation between supporters of the existence of anthropogenic global warming and those who deny its existence. The key institution for this theme is the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which is both a scientific and political body. In this context, the debate arises merged with the political discussion on appropriate responses to global warming. However, contested on this ground, the deniers transfer the debate to the media, mobilizing pseudo-science to delegitimize the conclusions of the scientific disciplines related to climate understanding. Therefore, we have a deliberate production of large-scale ignorance on this subject, which requires the use of agnotology to unravel it. Thus, climatology reveals itself an exemplary space to study the historical and social roots of scientific knowledge and the tensions and conflicting trajectories inside it, the ethical dilemmas posed and the universalist possibilities of scientific knowledge in the age of technoscience. (shrink)

Os tempos pandêmicos forçaram a escola em relação ao encontro com a morte. Cenas narradas ou encenadas convocaram os educadores a se confrontarem com os desdobramentos desse encontro disruptivo. Coube aos professores se ocuparem dos efeitos mortíferos produzidos pela pandemia de Covid-19. Diante da morte, o silêncio costuma ser uma saída e, em relação aos educadores, não saber sobre o que fazer com ela na escola produz mal-estar, pois educar supõe uma posição de saber a ser sustentada. A partir de (...) fragmentos das falas de educadoras da Educação Infantil, da entrevista com a diretora e coordenadora de uma escola pública da região serrana do Rio de Janeiro, questionamos se a intensificação do mal-estar vivido durante o período pandêmico poderia impactar nas formas de saber fazer com o mortífero que se presentificou no encontro com as crianças.Os espaços de escuta ocorreram no retorno das aulas presenciais, no início do ano de 2022, no formato de rodas de conversa, em uma pesquisa-intervenção. A possibilidade de colocar em palavras o vivido na escola possibilitou aos educadores reservar um lugar para a morte, ao invés de suprimi-la, oferecendo espaço para o não saber e a dúvida. (shrink)

O presente trabalho resulta de um estudo da reentrada do ensino de Filosofia no currículo do ensino médio e sua repercussão no curso de graduação em Filosofia ofertado pela Universidade Estadual Vale do Acaraú, em Sobral-CE, cujo objetivo é provocar uma reflexão sobre o ensino de Filosofia na educação básica de nível médio e a intensidade desse impacto com o retorno da disciplina. Assim, analisamos se esse impacto aconteceu de forma positiva ou negativa para o curso de Filosofia da UVA. (...) Nosso trabalho enfocou aqui, pesquisas e gráficos elaborados através da coleta de dados oficiais em alguns setores administrativos da Universidade, onde tiramos a conclusão dessa análise. (shrink)

Princípios lakatosianos e a abordagem de problemas matemáticos na perspectiva do PBL: possíveis contribuições Resumo: Imre Lakatos foi um importante filósofo do século XX que abordou conhecimentos relacionados à ciência e à Matemática. Esta última é fortemente explorada na obra Provas e Refutações e é tratada neste artigo como base essencial para se explorar princípios lakatosianos relacionados à abordagem de problemas matemáticos. Tal perspectiva é abordada aqui sob o enfoque do Problem-Based Learning (PBL). O objetivo é explorar possíveis relações entre (...) determinadas contribuições filosóficas de Lakatos e uma abordagem em torno de problemas. Este artigo estrutura-se em bases de uma pesquisa qualitativa, de caráter exploratório e bibliográfico. Pretende-se contribuir com a ampliação de estudos e reflexões envolvendo o campo da Filosofia e da Educação Matemática. Palavras-chave: Lakatos; Filosofia da Matemática; Provas e Refutações; Problemas matemáticos; PBL. Lakatosian principles and the approach of mathematical problems from the perspective of the pbl: possible contributions Abstract: Imre Lakatos was an important philosopher of the twentieth century who addressed knowledge related to science and mathematics. The latter is strongly explored in the work Proof and Refutation and is treated in this article as an essential basis for exploring Lakatosian principles related to the approach to mathematical problems. Such perspective is approached here under the Problem-Based Learning (PBL) approach. The aim is to explore possible relationships between certain philosophical contributions by Lakatos and an approach to problems. This article is structured on the basis of a qualitative, exploratory and bibliographic research. It is intended to contribute to the expansion of studies and reflections involving the field of philosophy and mathematical education. Key-words: Lakatos; Philosophy of mathematics; Proof and Refutation; Mathematical problems; PBL. Principios lakatosianos y el enfoque de los problemas matemáticos desde la perspectiva del pbl: posibles contribuciones Résumé: Imre Lakatos fue un importante filósofo del siglo XX que abordó los conocimientos relacionados con las ciencias y las Matemáticas. Este último está fuertemente explorado en el trabajo Pruebas y Refutación y se trata en este artículo como una base esencial para explorar los principios lakatosianos relacionados con el enfoque de problemas matemáticos. Esta perspectiva se aborda aquí bajo el enfoque de aprendizaje basado en problemas (ABP). El objetivo es explorar las posibles relaciones entre determinadas aportaciones filosóficas de Lakatos y una aproximación a los problemas. Este artículo se estructura a partir de una investigación cualitativa, exploratoria y bibliográfica. Se pretende contribuir a la expansión de estudios y reflexiones que involucren el campo de la filosofía y la educación Matemática. Mots-clés: Lakatos ; Filosofía de las Matemáticas ; Pruebas y Refutación ; Problemas matemáticos ; PBL. Financiamento de Pesquisa: CAPES Data de registro: 06/03/2021 Data de aceite: 18/08/2021. (shrink)

Exchange of arguments in a discussion often makes individuals more radical about their initial opinion. This phenomenon is known as Group-induced Attitude Polarization. A byproduct of it are bipolarization effects, where the distance between the attitudes of two groups of individuals increases after the discussion. This paper is a first attempt to analyse the building blocks of information exchange and information update that induce polarization. I use Argumentation Frameworks as a tool for encoding the information of agents in a debate (...) relative to a given issue a. I then adapt a specific measure of the degree of acceptability of an opinion. Changes in the degree of acceptability of a, prior and posterior to information exchange, serve here as an indicator of polarization. I finally show that the way agents transmit and update information has a decisive impact on polarization and bipolarization. (shrink)

On the occasion of its recent centennial, we trace the remarkable history of Herbert Spencer's 2,240 page Principles of Sociology , the most inductive, systematic, and comprehensive study of human society ever attempted. Spencer's bold aim was to establish empirically and then to explain (after the manner of the natural sciences) the 'relations of co-existence and sequence' among social phenomena. The database ('mass of evidence') required was so vast that it was published as a separate work, some eight folio volumes (...) called Descriptive Sociology . A major force in the making of both scientific sociology and anthropology in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, Spencer's magnum opus was all but lost to these fields by the early decades of the twentieth century. The present generation, however, is witnessing a growing revival of interest in Spencer's thought. For many, his confident vision of a natural science of society still offers the best hope for understanding human societies and how they have come to be as they are. (shrink)

What really makes the concepts of obligation or permission so important for practical philosophy? What if we could find a better concept, one that, despite the simplicity, could show itself as intuitive and rich as possible? Could justifications be used in common language and practice as a sign of ethical judgment and as a strong motive for action? In most scenarios, for example, it really doesn’t matter if a given action is obliged, permitted or forbidden, one may perform the action (...) as long as a justification for doing it is present. In this sense, the notion of justification seems to be more basic and powerful than other concepts used in the philosophical discourse. The existence of formal systems based on the epistemological side of justification, created by Artemov, led us primarily to think that justification could make the formal discourse much more accurate for ethics than the ones using deontological concepts. In the semantical and syntactical aspects, almost all of Artemov’s systems directly proved to be fruitful for ethical purposes. We also developed combinations between the standard deontic logic and logics of justification, resulting in what whe called the Logics of Normative Justification. These systems were able to change the object of the justification formulas and shed some light in ethics as a whole, normative and metaethics. Metaethics were a forgotten subject in formal ethics. We were also able to deal with some known problems in deontic logic, like the famous Ross’s paradox and the expressiveness of prima facie and all-things-considered obligations. (shrink)

Inspiradas no modelo schumpteriano de inovação nos segmentos produtivo e tecnológico, as diretrizes das agências multilaterais (Banco Mundial, Organização para a Cooperação e Desenvolvimento Econômico, Banco Interamericano de Desenvolvimento) em favor da agenda inovadora no setor público têm tido, desde o final do século passado, uma ampla capilaridade entre os países. No caso brasileiro, as experiências pontuais tiveram início mais precisamente já na segunda década, possuindo, portanto, um breve histórico de atuação nas instâncias municipais e estaduais e no âmbito federal. (...) O presente artigo busca investigar o nascedouro e as ações, princípios e valores do Pólen - Laboratório de Inovação em Gestão Pública (ENSP-Fiocruz) bem como os principais desafios frente ao estabelecimento de projetos em favor da inovação organizacional. Visando o alcance do referido objetivo, serão recuperadas conceitualmente as categorias inovação e laboratórios de inovação. Para a realização do estudo, será efetuada uma pesquisa bibliográfica e documental, aliada à técnica da observação participante, caracterizada pelo fato de os participantes do projeto serem também investigadores do fenômeno. Tem-se como hipótese que os programas de inovação no campo da gestão têm conquistado as várias instâncias do setor público, todavia tal agenda pode encontrar resistências de setores em função de fatores políticos, ideológicos e organizacionais. Como as categorias “protagonismo das pessoas e usuários”, “transparência” estão presentes nos programas inovadores, torna-se igualmente fundamental destacar o papel da cultura organizacional para as ações de inovação. (shrink)

The Compendium grammatices linguae hebraeae, one of Spinoza’s four unfinished works, was published in the Opera Posthuma of 1677. Three centuries later, there is still no critical edition and contributions towards the emendation of this work are very few and far between. This article offers a brief account of the nature, aims and chronology of Spinoza’s grammar. It also provides ample indications for a critical edition and advocates in great detail the need for numerous emendations to the text of the (...) Opera Posthuma. (shrink)

December 2008 marked the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, arguably the single most important and influential document endorsed by the United Nations. Jacques Maritain was a primary author of the religious liberty clauses of the 1948 Declaration, and the most prominent Christian philosopher ofthe twentieth century. Maritain developed a radical critique of prevailing Westem political and social thought. A persuasive critic of secular humanism and legal positivism, Maritain sought a cultural renewal of Christian Europe by means (...) of rediscovering an integral Christian humanism. This essay explores the central ideas in Maritain's philosophical defense of universal human rights. Maritain placed the philosophical foundation of human rights in natural law, and assumed the existence of a "natural spirituality of intelligence" grasped by a connatural, pre-philosophic intuition. Yet Pope Benedict XVI challenges the central philosophical assumptions at the foundation of Maritain's defense of human rights. (shrink)