Résumé – Dans l'œuvre de Ferdinand Gonseth, on voit culminer le désir de rapprocher, dans leurs objectifs et dans leurs méthodes, le philosophe et le savant.Cette idée méme a guidé, compte tenu des exigences historiques, les développements qui précèdent.Après un parcours rapide, évoquant les vingt premières années de Dialectics, le rôle scientifique joué dans cet imposant répertoire par son fondateur, rôle fortement accru par ses livres, on trouvera done une enquête sur des thèmes favoris dont l'intérêt s'est confirmé, et dont (...) les objets ont une haute valeur, pour qui voudrait analyser les courants de pensée capables d'enrichir la philosophie scientifique et d'affecter utilement le proche avenir de Dialectica. (shrink)

Résumé – Les diverses définitions communément admises pour caractériser le raisonnement par analogic sont tout d'abord discutées et critiquées – ceci relativement aux sciences biologiques. Puis, à propos notamment de la taxomonie, de la cytologie et de la physiologie, l'importance relative de l'analogie est commentée à l'aide de quelques exemples. Il est ensuite fait état de l'analogie‐conclusion, de l'analogie‐hypothèse et de l'analogie‐invention – divers aspects du raisonnement analogique, qui ont joué un rôle essentiel dans les découvertes les plus marquantes de (...) la biologie descriptive et dans la biologie expérimentale de ces dernières années. (shrink)

RésuméLa démarche biologique est épaulée par des sciences supports comme la physique ct la chimie. Elles ont largement contribué a la rendre plus systématiquement quantitative. Récemment, des sciences annexes, derectement dérivées de ces sciences auxiliaires – comme la biophysique et la biochimie – ont largement contribuéàľacquisition de faits nouveaux et à la mise en place ?on;explications originales. Dans la connaissance de la matière vivante , la complémentarité de ces disciplines ?on;étude est évidente mais, de par les caractéristiques mêmes des méthodes (...) impliquées, des discordances dans les données expérimentales et dans les interprétations demeurent inévitables. Plus que jamais, les resultats obtenus doivent done être soumis à une discussion critique portant sur les limites qu'imposent tout à la fois àľexpérimentation, les techniques ?on;analyse et la nature même de ľobjet étudié. Et il n'est pas toujours possible de juger dans quelle mesure ces frontières méthodologiques ne sont pas, en fait, dépassées …la représentation trouvée du sujet étant peu conformc à sa réalité propre. En tentant de dominer toujours mieux sa technologie – respectant le plus possible ľaspect in vivo de ľanalyse – en nuançant davantage les théories suggérées, la biologie ?on;aujourd'hui est placee devant de nouvelles options technologiques decisives.SummaryBiological method is backed up by the support sciences such as physics and chemistry… These have largely contributed to render biology more systematically quantitative. More recently, related sciences derived directly from these support sciences, such as biophysics and biochemistry, have provided a stimulus to the acquisition of new facts and the working out of original explanations. In the domain of knowledge about living material the complementarity of these study disciplines is obvious, but in view of the nature of the methods involved, inconsistencies in the experimental data and their interpretation remain inevitable. Henceforth, results and hypotheses have to be considered in the view of the limitations both due to the techniques employed and the nature itself of the specific object of experimentation. And it is not always easy to be sure that these “methodological frontiers” have been respected… the representations suggested for the tested object being quite different from the reality. By overcoming these obstacles and in drawing out the theories suggest by experiments having more and more an “in vivo aspect”, biology is today at the forefront of new, decisive technological alternatives.ZusammenfassungDie Verfahren der Biologie werden durch Hilfswissenschaften wie die Physik und die Chemie gestützt, die weitgehend dazu beigetragen haben, diese systematischer quantifizierbar zu machen. In neuester Zeit haben zusätzliche, unmittelbar von diesen Hilfswissenschaften abgeleitete Wis‐senschaften wie die Biophysik und die Biochemie zur Erwerbung neuer Tatsachen und zur Schaffung von originellen Erklärungen beigetragen. Fur die Erkenntnis der lebendigen Materie ist die Komplementaritaut dieser Disziplinen offensichtlich, aber wegen der charakteristischen Zuuge der involvierten Methoden bleiben unvermeidbare Diskrepanzen zwi‐schen den experimentellen Daten und den Interpretationen zurück. Mehr denn je müssen deshalb die erhaltenen Ergebnisse einer kritischen Diskussion unterzogen werden, die die Grenzen betrifft, welche das Experimentieren, die Techniken der Analyse und die Natur der Gegenstände selbst uns setzen. Es ist nicht immer möglich zu beurteilen, in welchem Masse diese methodolo‐gischen Grenzen in der Tat nicht schon überschritten worden sind…, indem die vom Subjekt gefundene Darstellung nicht mit der Wirklichkeit als solcher übereinstimmt. Dadurch dass er versucht, seine Technologie immer besser zu beherrschen, den in vivo Aspekt seiner Analyse soweit wie möglich zu berücksichtigen und die naheliegenden Theorien immer mehr zu nuancieren, wird der zeitgenössische Biologe vor entscheidende technologische Optionen gestellt. (shrink)

Hans Reichenbach, Philosophic Foundations of Quantum Mechanics. University of California Press. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1944.Georg Pólya, How to Solve It, a New Aspect of Mathematical Method; Princeton University Press, 1945.

RésuméCet article‐en hommage à Ferdinand Gonseth‐comprend trois parties. La première est consacrée àĽanalyse critique de quelques‐unes des propriétés essentielles du matériel biologique. Dans la seconde, les principales difficultés liées àĽétude expérimental de ce dernier, sont discu tées. La dernière résume, compte tenu des diverses remarques présentées, certains problèmes épis‐témologiques que posent les recherches sur Ľêtre vivant. A ce propos, il est fait notamment réfèrence aux réflexions de Th. S. Kuhn et à celles de F. Gonseth surtout.SummaryThis study‐dedicated to Ferdinand Gonseth‐will (...) be divided into three parts. The first one is devoted to a critical analysis of some of the essential properties of the biological material. In the second the main difficulties of its expermiental analysis are discussed. The final part summarises a few epistemological problems raised by research on the living objects; reference being made to the toughts of Th. S. Kuhn and in particular to those of F. Gonseth. (shrink)

RésuméC'est à un mode d'enseignement de la Biologie à l'Université… les travaux pratiques, qu'est consacré cet article. La forme, la nature et le contenu de ces « exercices » peuvent varier d'une Universitéà l'autre.Néanmoins, quelques règles générates essentiellement relatives aux méthodes pédagogiques pratiquées et à leurs limites, semblent pouvoir ětre dégagées. La justification d'un tel enseignement est tout d'abord l'objet de quelques remarques. Le choix des matières à enseigner expérimentalement — suivant les cycles d'études concernés — suscite un certain nombre (...) de commentaires critiques. Les objectifs et les contingences des travaux pratiques sont confrontés aux enseignements théoriques. Le choix des problèmes à traiter et les nombreux obstacles qui en découlent, donnent lieu à une discussion d'une portée épistémologique d'un grand intérět. (shrink)

Book Reviews in this ArticlePaul GochetMaurice BoudotKlaus‐Henrik JacobsenLèon BrunschvicgAndrè Bièler.

Political science is divided between methodological individualists, who seek to explain political phenomena by reference to individuals and their interactions, and holists (or nonreductionists), who consider some higher-level social entities or properties such as states, institutions, or cultures ontologically or causally significant. We propose a reconciliation between these two perspectives, building on related work in philosophy. After laying out a taxonomy of different variants of each view, we observe that (i) although political phenomena result from underlying individual attitudes and behavior, (...) individual-level descriptions do not always capture all explanatorily salient properties, and (ii) nonreductionistic explanations are mandated when social regularities are robust to changes in their individual-level realization. We characterize the dividing line between phenomena requiring nonreductionistic explanation and phenomena permitting individualistic explanation and give examples from the study of ethnic conflicts, social-network theory, and international-relations theory. (shrink)

How to integrate artificial intelligence technologies in the functioning and structures of our society has become a concern of contemporary politics and public debates. In this paper, we investigate national AI strategies as a peculiar form of co-shaping this development, a hybrid of policy and discourse that offers imaginaries, allocates resources, and sets rules. Conceptually, the paper is informed by sociotechnical imaginaries, the sociology of expectations, myths, and the sublime. Empirically we analyze AI policy documents of four key players in (...) the field, namely China, the United States, France, and Germany. The results show that the narrative construction of AI strategies is strikingly similar: they all establish AI as an inevitable and massively disrupting technological development by building on rhetorical devices such as a grand legacy and international competition. Having established this inevitable, yet uncertain, AI future, national leaders proclaim leadership intervention and articulate opportunities and distinct national pathways. While this narrative construction is quite uniform, the respective AI imaginaries are remarkably different, reflecting the vast cultural, political, and economic differences of the countries under study. As governments endow these imaginary pathways with massive resources and investments, they contribute to coproducing the installment of these futures and, thus, yield a performative lock-in function. (shrink)

In this paper I will introduce a practical explication for the notion of expertise. At first, I motivate this attempt by taking a look on recent debates which display great disagreement about whether and how to define expertise in the first place. After that I will introduce the methodology of practical explications in the spirit of Edward Craig’s Knowledge and the state of nature along with some conditions of adequacy taken from ordinary and scientific language. This eventually culminates in the (...) respective explication of expertise according to which this term essentially refers to a certain kind of service-relation. This is why expertise should be considered as a predominantly social kind. This article will end up with a discussion of advantages and prima facie plausible objections against my account of expertise. (shrink)

In this paper, I introduce the emerging theory of judgment aggregation as a framework for studying institutional design in social epistemology. When a group or collective organization is given an epistemic task, its performance may depend on its ‘aggregation procedure’, i.e. its mechanism for aggregating the group members’ individual beliefs or judgments into corresponding collective beliefs or judgments endorsed by the group as a whole. I argue that a group’s aggregation procedure plays an important role in determining whether the group (...) can meet two challenges: the ‘rationality challenge’ and the ‘knowledge challenge’. The rationality challenge arises when a group is required to endorse consistent beliefs or judgments; the knowledge challenge arises when the group’s beliefs or judgments are required to track certain truths. My discussion seeks to identify those properties of an aggregation procedure that affect a group’s success at meeting each of the two challenges. (shrink)

ABSTRACT We have previously argued that there are forms of greenhouse gas offsetting for which, when one emits and offsets, one imposes no risk. Orri Stefansson objects that our argument fails to distinguish properly between the people who stand to be harmed by one’s emissions and the people who stand to be benefited by one’s offsetting. We reply by emphasizing the difference between acting with a probability of making a difference to the distribution of harm and acting in a way (...) that worsen’s someone’s prospect. (shrink)

Information theory presupposes the notion of an epistemic agent, such as a scientist or an idealized human. Despite that, information theory is increasingly invoked by physicists concerned with fundamental physics, physics at very high energies, or generally with the physics of situations in which even idealized epistemic agents cannot exist. In this paper, I shall try to determine the extent to which the application of information theory in those contexts is legitimate. I will illustrate my considerations using the case of (...) black hole thermodynamics and Bekenstein's celebrated argument for his formula for the entropy of black holes. This example is particularly pertinent to the theme of the present collection because it is widely accepted as `empirical data' in notoriously empirically deprived quantum gravity, even though the laws of black hole thermodynamics have so far evaded direct empirical confirmation. (shrink)

Current EEG research emphasizes gamma band coherence as a signature of functional integration, that is, the solution to the binding problem. We note that spatial patterns of coherent neural activity are also observed at other EEG frequencies. If these oscillations reflect Nunez's resonant modes, they offer a solution to the binding problem that emerges naturally from the architecture of cortical connections.

On 13 June 2003, elections for both the regional parliaments and the European Parliament were held in Belgium.The percentage of voters casting a preferential vote increased when compared with the previous regional and European elections of 1999, reaching scores clearly higher than 60%. The new electoral laws are one explanation for this increase, together with societal evolutions, such as individualism, anti-party feelings, personalization of polities and the appearance of cartels. In comparison with the federal elections of 2003 however, there was (...) a decrease in prererential voting, due to lower campaign expenditures and to the success of parties that traditionally do not attract many preferential votes. Voters can also cast a vote for several candidates figuring on the same party list, which is contrary to the past done quite frequently now. Finally, more candidates than ever succeeded in becoming elected out oî the order of the party list. (shrink)

This paper poses a problem for Lewis’ Principal Principle in a subjective Bayesian framework: we show that, where chances inform degrees of belief, subjective Bayesianism fails to validate normal informal standards of what is reasonable. This problem points to a tension between the Principal Principle and the claim that conditional degrees of belief are conditional probabilities. However, one version of objective Bayesianism has a straightforward resolution to this problem, because it avoids this latter claim. The problem, then, offers some support (...) to this version of objective Bayesianism. (shrink)

Many assert that affluent countries have contributed in the past to poverty in developing countries through wars of aggression and conquest, colonialism and its legacies, the imposition of puppet leaders, and support for brutal dictators and venal elites. Thomas Pogge has recently argued that there is an additional and, arguably, even more consequential way in which the affluent continue to contribute to poverty in the developing world. He argues that when people cooperate in instituting and upholding institutional arrangements that foreseeably (...) result in more severe or more widespread poverty or human rights deficits than would foreseeably result under feasible alternative arrangements, they are contributors to these harms. Because of this, he argues, they have stringent, contribution-based (or negative) duties to address this poverty. We will call this the ‘Feasible Alternatives Thesis' (FAT), and our aim in this article is to examine it critically. (shrink)