The size and distance of an object are crucial pieces of information that every human being processes from an early age (see, e.g., Day & McKenzie, 1981; Granrud, 2006). For infants, the distance o...

Durante algún tiempo el problema de la fundamentación de lo moral atrajo la atención de los éticos. Hoy en día, el «giro aplicado » sufrido por la filosofía afecta en primer término a la ética y le pide orientaciones, aunque mediatas como es propio de la filosofía, para organizar la vida en las distintas esferas de la vida social. Este cambio exige ante todo aclarar cuál debe ser el proceder de la ética aplicada (deductivo, inductivo, hermenéutico), si existen principios comunes (...) a sus distintos ámbitos o constituyen reinos de taifas, cuáles son los principios, hábitos y valores que cada esfera exige para moralizarse, en el sentido de Ortega, qué métodos son adecuados para la toma de decisiones. Estas exigencias están ya en la calle y piden interdisciplinariedad. No intentar responder a ellas es reconocer, frente a la pretensión originaria, que a la filosofía no le importa la vida, no le importa sí los seres humanos viven bien. (shrink)

Sin duda la revolución 4.0 es ya el mundo en el que vivimos y proporciona instrumentos muy valiosos para construir una sociedad que pueda servir mejor a los seres humanos y al cuidado de la naturaleza desde las nuevas posibilidades. Pero para emprender ese camino es preciso optar por una ética que reconozca que lleva la intersubjetividad entrañada en su seno, porque es consciente de que no somos individuos aislados, sino que devenimos personas desde el reconocimiento recíproco como interlocutores válidos, (...) como seres dotados de dignidad y no un simple precio, como quienes son carne de la misma carne y hueso del mismo hueso. Ésta sería una ética dialógica de la razón cordial. (shrink)

This article brings together the history of the social sciences and the history of social thought in Socialist Romania. It is concerned with the development of ideas about the social beyond collectivism, especially about the relationship between individual and society under socialism, from the early 1960s to the end of the 1970s. The analysis speaks to three major themes in the current historiography of Cold War social science. First, the article investigates the role of disciplinary specialization in the advancement of (...) new ideas about the social in the postwar period. Specifically, it asks how the debate over the relationship between sociology and Marxism-Leninism has challenged ideas about collectivism from Stalinist social science. Second, the article shows how social practice, individual and collective agency, and people's subjectivities became theoretically relevant in the 1960s, and how they were integrated, via empirical sociological research, into the reworked conceptual apparatus of post-Stalinist Marxism-Leninism. This complicates accounts about the role of quantification and theorization in postwar social science by foregrounding the intense reflection on the role of empirical research in sociology under state socialism. Third, the article shows how the relationship between individual and society became a topic of interest across social sciences in the 1960s and 1970s. The Marxist humanist approach to the social, although it never achieved the institutional status of a distinct discipline, adds an important perspective from East Central Europe to the existing historiography of the ‘thinning’ of the social in social sciences and social thought beginning in the 1950s. (shrink)

En el siglo XXI nace la neurociencia de la ética con la pretensión de ser un nuevo saber (la neuroética), capaz de descubrir las bases cerebrales de la conducta moral. Desde ellas algunos neurocientíficos se proponen fundamentar una ética universal. El artículo 1) analiza críticamente ese proceso de fundamentación, 2) recurre para profundizar en él a la paradoja de la cooperación humana, y 3) hace un balance de las aportaciones de la neurociencia a la ética y de sus posibilidades de (...) fundamentar una ética universal. (shrink)

La Neuroética necesita un marco de ética filosófica desde el que interpretar, integrar y criticar el progreso neurocientífico en el ámbito moral. Este artículo intenta: 1) Mostrar en qué medida este marco es necesario. 2) Abordar la cuestión del método adecuado para construirlo. 3) Compilar los principales tópoi de las neurociencias que el marco debería interpretar e integrar. 4) Mostrar cómo la ética del discurso puede ser un marco adecuado para la neuroética. 5) Señalar algunas insuficiencias de ese marco y (...) sugerir para superarlas una ética de la razón cordial. (shrink)

In this paper, we discuss how existentialism was criticized, disseminated, and gradually autochthonized in the main philosophical journals of Socialist Romania. We show that the early critique of existentialism was both a statement against contemporary bourgeois philosophy in general and a condemnation of the local philosophical production of the interwar period. In the 1950s, this kind of critique was attuned to the growing fame of several Romanian authors who had emigrated to the West (e.g., Emil Cioran, Mircea Eliade) and targeted (...) both past and contemporary irrationalism. Following a period of critique of existentialism without existentialists (i.e., without reference to individual authors), the 1960s discussions of existentialism were mainly driven by interest in a small number of existentialist authors. In particular, the evolution of Jean-Paul Sartre’s work and politics was analyzed as it straddled existentialism and Marxism. The 1970s saw the integration of selected existentialist concepts and themes, in an attempt to offer a Marxist alternative to existentialism in the form of philosophical anthropology. This led to a period of engagement with existentialists without existentialism across an increasing number of separate disciplines within the humanities and social sciences. In the 1980s, following the failure of Marxist philosophical anthropology and at the height of national communism, existentialism could also be autochthonized through the recovery of selected philosophers from the interwar period whose work had been previously criticized as irrationalist. (shrink)

From 1989 through September 2017, Chile’s highly restrictive abortion laws exposed women to victimisation and needlessly threatened their health, freedom and even lives. However, after decades of unsuccessful attempts to decriminalise abortion, legislation regulating pregnancy termination on three grounds was recently enacted. In the aftermath, an aggressive conservative drive designed to turn conscientious objection into a pivotal new obstacle, mounted during the congressional debate, has led to extensive, complex arguments about the validity and legitimacy of conscientious objection. This article offers (...) a critical review of the emergence of conscientious objection and its likely policy and ethical implications. It posits the need to regulate conscientious objection through checks and balances designed to keep it from being turned into an ideological barrier meant to hinder women’s access to critical healthcare. (shrink)

Depois da viragem do século, podemos dizer que a noção de responsabilidade social está muito em voga no mundo empresarial, muito embora, como é evidente, o conceito possui uma história muito mais ampla e profunda. Tendo isso em conta, o presente artigo procura, antes de mais, mostrar a evolução mais recente do conceito de responsabilidade social, ao mesmo tempo que demonstra como um tal conceito não seña mais do que um efeito de cosmética caso não estivesse fundado numa verdadeira ética (...) empresarial Nesse sentido, a autora oferece-nos alguns dos elementos filosóficos subjacentes a uma tal ética, elementos esses que se destinam a permitir uma avaliação de três dos principais modelos de empresa que identifica, a saber: o modelo economicista, o modelo institucional, e, finalmente, o modelo centrado na globalidade dos afectados pela actividade empresarial. O objectivo, naturalmente, é mostrar as razões pelas quais, numa perspectiva filosófica, a opção correcta é aquela que tem em vista o último dos três modelos mencionados. The concept of social responsibility has been much in vogue in the entrepreneurial world after the turn of the century, though the concept has a much larger and profound history. Taking this into account, the paper seeks to present, first of all, the most recent evolution of the concept of social responsibility and, simultaneously, demonstrates how such a concept would be nothing more than a cosmetic effect, if it were not based on a true entreprenewrial ethics. Thus, the author presents some of the philosophical elements underlying such an ethics; these elements intend to allow an evaluation of the three main enterprise models, which she identifies, namely the economicist model, the institutional model, and, finally, the model centred on all those affected by the entrepreneurial activity. Obviously, the aim of the paper is to present the reasons why, in a philosophical perspective, the right choice is the one which opts for the last of the tree mentioned models. (shrink)

Our challenge for the twenty-first century consists in showing how to construct a global ethics and in trying to discover a rational foundation for it, which may be used as guidance for action and as a norm for the criticism of specific situations. I argue that four tasks must be accomplished to construct a global ethics: Construct that global governance or that world government that makes cosmopolitan citizenship possible. Foster the joint work of bioethics, economic and business ethics, and development (...) ethics – areas of applied ethics, each one of which on its own has reached the global level. Discover a rational basis for a global ethics, which has a universal normative force, but assumes cultural differences. Develop and promote a dilaogical ethics of cordial reason, which renders one capable of compassion and care. (shrink)

Examining the theoretical and empirical status of applied ethics, this volume demonstrates how a pluralistic and democratic society can deal with ethical issues in the light of its moral conscience.

En este trabajo se realiza una propuesta de comunicación transdisciplinar entre las ciencias cognitivas y la educación, tal y como se perfilan en el siglo XXI. En un primer lugar se contextualizan estos procesos de comunicación en el continuum histórico que transita desde los inicios del siglo pasado, con la configuración de la psicología educativa dentro del constructo de las ciencias educativas; pasando por la constitución de las ciencias cognitivas, a mediados del siglo XX que propició la emergencia de la (...) síntesis disciplinar entre las ciencias del cerebro y de la mente, para posibilitar un encuadre arraigado en el presente, y en las propuestas de consiliencia entre neurociencia cognitiva y educación. Desde este presente histórico, se efectúa una propuesta de diálogo entre las distintas epistemes (educativas y cognitivas), en relación con el fenómeno de la educación bilingüe, y en concreto en el contexto intercultural ecuatoriano. La integración de los distintos niveles de análisis que configuran un fenómeno complejo, como lo es todo fenómeno educativo, refleja cómo los intentos transdisciplinares orientados a reconocer la complejidad ontológica de un mismo objeto de estudio, requiere del diálogo entre las distintas epistemologías y metodologías implicadas. La apertura del campo educativo a las dimensiones mentales y cerebrales en su expresión cognitiva, requiere en este s. XXI procesos de apertura recíproca respecto de la influencia que el eje cultura-educación ejerce en el modelamiento de los procesos de cognición y aprendizaje. (shrink)

Originally published during the early part of the twentieth century, the Cambridge Manuals of Science and Literature were designed to provide concise introductions to a broad range of topics. They were written by experts for the general reader and combined a comprehensive approach to knowledge with an emphasis on accessibility. Plato: Moral and Political Ideals by Adela Marion Adam, first printed in 1913, deals with the main substance of Plato's philosophy of ethics and politics, set within the context of his (...) intellectual debt to Socrates. (shrink)

Why “aporophobia”—rejection of the poor—is one of the most serious problems facing the world today, and how we can fight it In this revelatory book, acclaimed political philosopher Adela Cortina makes an unprecedented assertion: the biggest problem facing the world today is the rejection of poor people. Because we can’t recognize something we can’t name, she proposes the term “aporophobia” for the pervasive exclusion, stigmatization, and humiliation of the poor, which cuts across xenophobia, racism, antisemitism, and other prejudices. Passionate and (...) powerful, Aporophobia examines where this nearly invisible daily attack on poor people comes from, why it is so harmful, and how we can fight it. Aporophobia traces this universal prejudice’s neurological and social origins and its wide-ranging, pernicious consequences, from unnoticed hate crimes to aporophobia’s threat to democracy. It sheds new light on today’s rampant anti-immigrant feeling, which Cortina argues is better understood as aporophobia than xenophobia. We reject migrants not because of their origin, race, or ethnicity but because they seem to bring problems while offering nothing of value. And this is unforgivable in societies that enshrine economic exchange as the supreme value while forgetting that we can’t create communities worth living in without dignity, generosity, and compassion for all. Yet there is hope, and Cortina explains how we can overcome the moral, social, and political disaster of aporophobia through education and democratic institutions, and how poverty itself can be eradicated if we choose. In a world of migrant crises and economic inequality, Aporophobia is essential for understanding and confronting one of the most serious problems of the twenty-first century. (shrink)

While the question of whether selected-effects accounts of function or causal-role accounts of function provide the ‘true' functional analysis has given way to a general pluralistic consensus, Philip Kitcher has suggested that different functional accounts allow for unification. I argue that Kitcher's attempt to unify the two functional analyses fails because he adopts the environment-centered perspective on selection as a premise. The premise is undermined by the role niche construction is likely to play in the context of evolution. Moreover, I (...) raise the tentative suggestion that niche construction may threaten the applicability, or at least the relevance, of selected-effects ascriptions. *Received October 2009; revised May 2010. †To contact the author, please write to: Institut für Philosophie Fakultät für Philosophie und Bildungswissenschaft, Universität Wien, Universitätsstraße 7 1010 Wien, Austria; e-mail: Adela.Roszkowski@univie.ac.at. (shrink)

La ética del discurso es un óptimo fundamento para la ética cívica de una sociedad moralmente pluralista, pero siempre que no se contente con su dimensión procedimental, sino que saque a la luz su dimensión cordial. Sólo que entonces pasa de ser ética del discurso a ethica cordis. El presente trabajo intenta dar ese paso, y con ese fin cubre tres etapas: 1) en qué medida son necesarios los vínculos, 2) en qué consiste el vínculo discursivo, 3) cómo el vínculo (...) comunicativo incluye el discursivo y va más allá, dando lugar a una ética de la razón cordial. (shrink)

La conciencia moral personal es una de las claves de bóveda de la vida moral. Darwin llega a afirmar que constituye la diferencia más importante entre el hombre y los animales inferiores. Y, sin embargo, las propuestas filosóficas más relevantes de nuestro tiempo no se ocupan de ella expresamente, tal vez porque, como decía Aranguren, han primado la ética intersubjetiva sobre la intrasubjetiva. Pero sin reconstruir esa ética intrasubjetiva, se diluye la vida moral, tanto personal como social. En este trabajo (...) intentamos dilucidar en qué consiste la conciencia moral personal, cuáles son sus bases neurobiológicas, y si bastan para explicar su lugar indeclinable en la vida moral. Para responder habremos de transitar de Darwin a Kant. (shrink)

En la obra de Aranguren la dimensión religiosa es crucial, cuando la trata desde la perspectiva de los “estudios religiosos” y cuando se ocupa de ella desde la perspectiva ética. En este segundo caso, Aranguren habla de una “ética abierta a la religión”. El artículo trata de mostrar que en este segundo caso se produce una evolución en el pensamiento de Aranguren, en la que cabe distinguir dos etapas. En la primera de ellas la religión se presenta como la culminación (...) de todas las aspiraciones del hombre desde una ética fundamentada en la metafísica. En la segunda etapa Dios aparece como posible respuesta a preguntas abiertas desde una ética hermenéutico-narrativa. (shrink)

Workplaces around the world have experienced extraordinary changes to the composition of their workforces and the nature of work. Few studies have explored workers from multiple countries of birth, with multiple religious orientations, working together within a single country of residence. Building on and extending the Work Values Ethic (WVE) literature, we examine 1,382 responses from employees working in three manufacturing companies. Differences were found in the mean WVE scores of groups of respondents from 42 countries of birth. Their WVE (...) scores were strongly associated with their birth countries’ per capita Gross National Product (GNP), and the means of these scores did not change with variations in the respondents’ length of residence in a different country. These results have implications for developing cross-cultural management practices and for improving relationships with employees, with opportunities for increased commitment and, potentially, productivity. (shrink)

Between 1797 and 1798, Germaine de Staël argued that France needed a reformation to end the Revolution, proposing the adoption Protestantism as a religion of state. This proposal has been explained away as an obvious and uninteresting consequence of her Calvinist upbringing. While obviously relevant, Staël’s religious background is not a sufficient explanation for a proposal that would have upended the constitutional principles of the Directorial republic as well as centuries of tradition in France. I argue instead that Staël’s proposal (...) is better understood in framework of the Directory’s plans to breach the state’s neutrality in religious matters, established in the 1795 Constitution, in order to promote love of the republic via a new religion, theophilanthropy. Thus, Staël identified a political opportunity for constitutional change in matters of religion and sought to steer the course towards an existing religion that, as she argued, had all the benefits that the Directory saw in theophilanthropy, but none of the pitfalls, especially the theophilanthropists’ association with the Terror. This re-interpretation of Staël’s proposal, made in Circonstances actuelles, has implications for our broader understanding of this work, hailed as her ‘most substantial contribution to political and constitutional theory’, and the Thermidorian republic. (shrink)

Este trabajo consta de dos partes, ligadas entre sí por el concepto de ciudadanía democrática. La primera intenta diseñar los trazos de un modelo de democracia deliberativa como el más apropiado para encarnar la sustancia misma de la democracia. De ahí que presente el sentido de la democracia deliberativa, sus rasgos, sus ventajas frente a otros modelos, las condiciones de su puesta en marcha, sus límites y el tipo concreto de democracia deliberativa que sería más adecuado y que recibe el (...) nombre de «comunicativa»; todo ello en diálogo con sus principales representantes. La segunda parte aborda la cuestión concreta del lugar de la religión en las sociedades que se autocomprenden como democracias deliberativas, sociedades que cabe entender como seculares, postseculares, o mejor, pluralistas. Entrando en el debate entre los defensores de un espacio público-político y los de una esfera pública polifónica, entre los partidarios de una razón pública secular o pública sin más adjetivos, el trabajo propone un modelo de espacio público-social como lugar de descubrimiento, en que la diversidad de las voces garantiza el respeto a la ciudadanía compleja y posibilita juegos de suma positiva. (shrink)

Retraction note: Alba Leonel, A., Sánchez Piña, S., Papaqui Alba, S., & Montes Rodríguez, B. G. (2022). Sleep quality in older adults with arterial hypertension. HUMAN REVIEW. International Humanities / Revista Internacional De Humanidades, 12(6), 2–8. https://doi.org/10.37467/revhuman.v11.4095 The Editorial Office of Eurasia Academic Publishing Group has retracted this article. An investigation carried out by our Research Integrity Department has found a group of articles, among which this one is found, that are not within the thematic scope of the journal. We (...) believe that the editorial process was manipulated and, furthermore, acceptance decisions were made under possibly inappropriate peer review. (shrink)

Dado que la bioética surge como reacción a la vulneración de la dignidad de las personas, se crearon comisiones para normar la experimentación con humanos. Considerar los límites de la investigación biomédica y la práctica rutinaria de la medicina precisan criterios de riesgo/beneficio en las investigaciones donde participan sujetos. ¿Qué principios responden a la dilemática situación de experimentar con humanos? ¿pueden estos principios fundamentar criterios normativos y regulatorios que valgan para la ética de la investigación? ¿Cuáles son los límites en (...) la práctica y la investigación? Como se verá, no existe prácticamente reglamentación específica para la investigación social más allá de la derivada por la investigación médica. Se describen, entonces, las raíces históricas y los fundamentos filosóficos de la ética de la investigación en función de mostrar sus límites y alcances metodológicos. (shrink)

Introducción: El dormir mal podría ser la causa de hipertensión arterial y de otras enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles.Objetivo: Conocer la calidad de sueño de las personas con hipertensión arterial.Metodología: Se realizo un estudio descriptivo, se aplico el cuestionario de Índice de Calidad de Sueño de Pittsburgh.Resultados: Se evaluó la calidad de sueño en 85 personas con hipertensión arterial, de abril a diciembre del 2021. El 84% tiene un índice de mala y muy mala calidad de sueño.Conclusión: Las personas con hipertensión (...) con mala y muy mala calidad de sueño puede afectar sus cifras de tensión arterial. (shrink)

This book contends that when late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century writers sought to explain the origins of emotions, they often discovered that their feelings may not really have been their own. It explores the paradoxes of representing feelings in philosophy, aesthetic theory, gender ideology, literature, and popular sentimentality, and it argues that this period's obsession with sentimental, wayward emotion was inseparable from the dilemmas resulting from attempts to locate the origins of feelings in experience. The book shows how these epistemological (...) dilemmas became gendered by studying a series of extravagantly affective scenes in works by Hume, Wordsworth, Charlotte Smith, and Jane Austen. Making its argument through a provocative conjunction of texts that range across genres and genders and across the divide between the eighteenth century and Romanticism, Strange Fits of Passion rediscovers the relationship of empiricism to the culture of sentimentality, and the significance of emotion to Romanticism. (shrink)

The nineteen-nineties saw the so-called “deliberative turn in democracy”, which was taken up by a large number of democracy theorists. This paper sets out: 1) to analyse why this turn took place; 2) to classify the different proposals of deliberative democracy into two models (D1 and D2), in view of their epistemological effectiveness (model D1 assumes the pattern of Rawls’ political liberalism, and model D2, Habermas’ Theory of Discourse); 3) to display the superiority of D2 over D1; 4) to point (...) out certain shortcomings in Habermas’ deliberative-discursive politics and to propose a model of democracy which will enable these to be improved on, to be known as “communicative democracy”. (shrink)

En s’appuyant sur les autobiographies de douze élèves « à problèmes », l’auteure interroge deux paradigmes de la psychanalyse contemporaine. Le paradigme archéologique, cherchant à découvrir le latent derrière le manifeste, se situe du côté d’une logique orientée vers le passé. A l’opposé, le paradigme transformatif, dont le but est de développer la « musculature psychique », vise l’ouverture à une pluralité de possibles résidant dans l’avenir. L’auteure montre l’intérêt de dialectiser ces deux approches, tant dans la clinique que dans (...) l’approche des productions culturelles, autobiographie comprise. Les enjeux éthiques découlant de l’intervention de l’analyste/interprète prennent une importante centrale. (shrink)

The Times Literary Supplement of November 8, 1917, contained, under the title of Socrates recognitns, a review of Plato's Biography of Socrates, a lecture delivered by Professor A. E. Taylor to the British Academy in the early part of last year. The opening sentence of the review is as follows: ‘Next to the problem of the Gospels ranks that of the Platonic dialogues amongst those most vital to the history of the human spirit.’ A little further down the reviewer says: (...) ‘It is much to the credit of British scholarship—and especially to that of the University of St. Andrews—that it should have attacked these problems with untiring energy, and propounded solutions which, although they run counter to most of the traditional tendencies of historical and philosophical criticism, have not only challenged attention, but are carrying conviction even to unlikely quarters.’ And again, at the end of the article, we read this passage: ‘It is scarcely to be thought that the ground won by the scholars of St. Andrews will be held without counter-attack; but this is slow to mature, and in the meanwhile such essays as the subject of this notice, with which we may couple the paper recently read to the British Academy by Professor Burnet on the Socratic doctrine of the soul, serve to buttress and consolidate the position.’. (shrink)

One of the essential tasks of bioethics in morally pluralistic societies consists of fostering a public use of reason in its field of competence. This is the fundamental thesis of the present work. To deal with it I will try to answer two crucial questions: What is moral pluralism and why does it demand fostering the use of public reason in moral issues in the sphere of bioethics and What are the laboratories of bioethics in a pluralistic society?

Apocalyptic themes in the Bible imaginatively address issues of perennial concern to communities of faith. Apocalyptic rhetoric has the potential to unmask forces that pretend to be benign, but are actually exploitative.

On the deepest level, the Book of Revelation provides a story in and through which the people of God discover who they are and what they are to do.

Este artículo, de título tan genérico, no pretende ser un listado exhaustivo e historiográfico de autoras de historieta contemporánea española. En esta aproximación se cuestionan a priori las deficiencias de la etiqueta global de “cómic femenino”, y se muestra el trabajo representativo de una serie de dibujantes y guionistas mujeres, desde los años ochenta (desde Madriz, El Cairo y El Víbora) hasta la actualidad: Laura Pérez-Vernetti, Ana Juan, Ana Miralles, Sonia Pulido y Clara-Tanit. Autoras que se hilvanan en un hilo (...) generacional y que ofrecen una explosión de miradas, de trazos, temas y estilos plásticos distintos. Se observa el fenómeno de la producción femenina y su recepción a través de colecciones ad hoc de algunas casas de edición, de retrospectivas, coloquios y exposiciones, que siguen alertando de la necesidad de una visibilidad, así como la atracción o propensión de las autoras al dibujo y la ilustración y los lazos establecidos entre cómic de autoría femenina y el concepto de “cómic de autor”, literatura y relato egotista. (shrink)

Bioethics faces the challenge of collaborating in building a just and sustainable world. This article analyzes the birth of bioethics as a civic bioethics of pluralistic societies in the context of applied ethics, its evolution to become a global bioethics, its current structure, the challenges it faces, and finally the kind of practical reasoning that should guide its task if bioethics is to achieve its goals.

La neuroética nace oficialmente a comienzos del siglo XXI, gracias al avance de las neurociencias, como ética aplicada vinculada a la bioética, pero también como neuroética autónoma. Como ética aplicada, aborda cuestiones cercanas a la bioética. Como neuroética autónoma, se enfrenta a problemas clásicos de la filosofía desde una perspectiva neurocientífica en sentido amplio. Dos cuestiones serán centrales en ella: diseñar un marco para seleccionar, interpretar e integrar los datos de las neurociencias acerca de la moralidad, y trazar el método (...) -o métodos- adecuados para el nuevo saber. Curiosamente, en ambos casos la mayor parte de los neuroéticos dice inscribirse en posiciones naturalistas, pero realmente procede de forma no-naturalista. El artículo se propone analizar los distintos lados de la neuroética y sacar a la luz el método que realmente siguen los neuroéticos, que desmiente al naturalismo. (shrink)