This work has been selected by scholars as being culturally important and is part of the knowledge base of civilization as we know it. This work is in the public domain in the United States of America, and possibly other nations. Within the United States, you may freely copy and distribute this work, as no entity (individual or corporate) has a copyright on the body of the work. Scholars believe, and we concur, that this work is important enough to be (...) preserved, reproduced, and made generally available to the public. To ensure a quality reading experience, this work has been proofread and republished using a format that seamlessly blends the original graphical elements with text in an easy-to-read typeface. We appreciate your support of the preservation process, and thank you for being an important part of keeping this knowledge alive and relevant. (shrink)

In this commentary, we discuss an important pattern of results in the literature on the neural basis of expertise: decrease of cerebral activation at the beginning of acquisition of expertise and functional cerebral reorganization as a consequence of years of practice. We show how these two results can be integrated with the neural reuse framework.

The Einstellung effect occurs when the first idea that comes to mind, triggered by familiar features of a problem, prevents a better solution being found. It has been shown to affect both people facing novel problems and experts within their field of expertise. We show that it works by influencing mechanisms that determine what information is attended to. Having found one solution, expert chess players reported that they were looking for a better one. But their eye movements showed that they (...) continued to look at features of the problem related to the solution they had already thought of. The mechanism which allows the first schema activated by familiar aspects of a problem to control the subsequent direction of attention may contribute to a wide range of biases both in everyday and expert thought - from confirmation bias in hypothesis testing to the tendency of scientists to ignore results that do not fit their favoured theories. (shrink)

In this study we use a computational model of language learning called model of syntax acquisition in children (MOSAIC) to investigate the extent to which the optional infinitive (OI) phenomenon in Dutch and English can be explained in terms of a resource-limited distributional analysis of Dutch and English child-directed speech. The results show that the same version of MOSAIC is able to simulate changes in the pattern of finiteness marking in 2 children learning Dutch and 2 children learning English as (...) the average length of their utterances increases. These results suggest that it is possible to explain the key features of the OI phenomenon in both Dutch and English in terms of the interaction between an utterance-final bias in learning and the distributional characteristics of child-directed speech in the 2 languages. They also show how computational modeling techniques can be used to investigate the extent to which cross-linguistic similarities in the developmental data can be explained in terms of common processing constraints as opposed to innate knowledge of universal grammar. (shrink)

Expert chess players, specialized in different openings, recalled positions and solved problems within and outside their area of specialization. While their general expertise was at a similar level, players performed better with stimuli from their area of specialization. The effect of specialization on both recall and problem solving was strong enough to override general expertise—players remembering positions and solving problems from their area of specialization performed at around the level of players 1 standard deviation (SD) above them in general skill. (...) Their problem‐solving strategy also changed depending on whether the problem was within their area of specialization. When it was, they searched more in depth and less in breadth; with problems outside their area of specialization, the reverse. The knowledge that comes from familiarity with a problem area is more important than general purpose strategies in determining how an expert will tackle it. These results demonstrate the link in experts between problem solving and memory of specific experiences and indicate that the search for context‐independent general purpose problem‐solving strategies to teach to future experts is unlikely to be successful. (shrink)

The original book chapter does not have an abstract. However, I have written an abstract for this repository: Religious life encompasses a wide diversity of situations for which the emotional tone is on a continuum from extreme euphoria to extreme dysphoria. In this book chapter, we propose the novel hypothesis that euphoria and dysphoria have distinctly separate functional consequences for religious evolution and survivability. This is due to the differential cognitive states that are created in euphoric and dysphoric situations. Based (...) on readings from religious studies and cognitive psychology, we propose that euphoria in religion is conducive to social bonding and situations needing lateral thinking and creativity; whereas dysphoria in religion is conducive to situations where precision and analogical reasoning are necessary. (shrink)

Cet ouvrage se veut une lecture rhétorique de quelques problèmes-clés ayant marqué la période qui s'étend des débuts de la révolution scientifique du XVIIe siècle jusqu'au moment où, au XIXe, une autre se prépare. Une telle sorte d'analyse se fonde sur le fait qu'avant d'intervenir dans les efforts de persuasion, certains schèmes " poétiques " sont déjà présents et actifs dans la formation et l'acceptation de toute représentation nouvelle. C'est pourquoi la " rhétorique profonde " que nous propose ici (...) class='Hi'>Fernand Hallyn ne se contente nullement d'éclairer les procédés de la science qui interviennent dans la communication de positions, de démarches ou de résultats, mais vise d'abord à étudier ses formes d'invention et de découverte. Saisir la démarche scientifique en train de se faire comme un cas particulier de la problématique générale de la créativité - bref explorer plus avant la voie ouverte dans La Structure poétique du mande - tel est donc l'enjeu de ce volume. (shrink)

Reichenbach explains temporally asymmetric phenomena by appeal to entropy and ‘branch structure’. He explains why the entropic gradients of isolated subsystems are oriented towards the future and not the past, and why we have records of the past and not the future, by appeal to the fact that the universe is currently on a long entropic upgrade with subsystems that branch off and become quasi-isolated. Reichenbach’s approach has been criticised for relying too closely on entropy. The more popular approach nowadays (...) is to appeal instead to a particular low-entropy initial state—Albert’s ‘Past Hypothesis’. I’ll argue that this neglect of Reichenbach’s approach is unwarranted. A Reichenbachian account has important advantages over Albert’s: it correctly identifies the minimal temporally asymmetric posit needed to derive key temporally asymmetries and it offers a more adequate account of the record asymmetry. While a Reichenbachian account needs to be supplemented, it provides the right foundations for explaining temporally asymmetric phenomena and what we might ultimately mean by ‘the direction of time’. (shrink)

Recent investigation brought to light that Burgundio of Pisa achieved the first Latin translation of Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics before 1150. This profect was a very arduous one and did not turn out equally successful. Apparently Burgundio set to work without previous searching for an adequate Latin terminology; so he couldn't preserve his translation from some darkness and ambiguity. Very often a cluster of somewhat synonymous Greek terms has been translated by a single Latin word; on the other hand one Greek (...) term has regulary been rendered by the same stereotyped Latin equivalent, as if semantic fields in Greek and Latin were fairly coex- tensive. F. Bossier comments upon Bugundio's rendering of four important Greek terms aretê vs. dunamis, spoudaios, sôphrôn and boulêton. (shrink)

This paper develops the very basic notions of analysis in a weak second-order theory of arithmetic BTFA whose provably total functions are the polynomial time computable functions. We formalize within BTFA the real number system and the notion of a continuous real function of a real variable. The theory BTFA is able to prove the intermediate value theorem, wherefore it follows that the system of real numbers is a real closed ordered field. In the last section of the paper, we (...) show how to interpret the theory BTFA in Robinson's theory of arithmetic Q. This fact entails that the elementary theory of the real closed ordered fields is interpretable in Q. (shrink)

There are temporal asymmetries in our attitudes towards the past and future. For example, we judge that a given amount of work is worth twice as much if it is described as taking place in the future, compared to the past :796–801, 2008). Does this temporal value asymmetry support a tensed metaphysics? By getting clear on the asymmetry’s features, I’ll argue that it doesn’t. To support a tensed metaphysics, the value asymmetry would need to not vary with temporal distance, apply (...) equally to events concerning oneself and others, and be rational and judged to be so. But evidence suggests the value asymmetry lacks these features. There are, moreover, independent arguments against its rationality. The asymmetry’s features suggest instead that it arises as an emotion-driven generalisation from a temporal bias concerning our future actions. This explanation points towards mechanisms that can play a role in explaining other instances where we generalise about the past and future, and why we’re tempted towards metaphysical pictures of time. (shrink)

We standardly evaluate counterfactuals and abilities in temporally asymmetric terms—by keeping the past fixed and holding the future open. Only future events depend counterfactually on what happens now. Past events do not. Conversely, past events are relevant to what abilities one has now in a way that future events are not. Lewis, Sider and others continue to evaluate counterfactuals and abilities in temporally asymmetric terms, even in cases of backwards time travel. I’ll argue that we need more temporally neutral methods. (...) The past shouldn’t always be held fixed, because backwards time travel requires backwards counterfactual dependence. Future events should sometimes be held fixed, because they’re in the causal history of the past, and agents have evidence of them independently of their decisions now. We need temporally neutral methods to maintain connections between causation, counterfactuals and evidence, and if counterfactuals are used to explain the temporal asymmetry of causation. (shrink)

David Albert explains why we can typically influence the future but not the past by appealing to an initial low-entropy state of the universe. And he argues that in the rare cases where we can influence the past, we cannot use this influence to knowingly gain future rewards: so it does not constitute control. I introduce an important new case in which Albert's account implies we can not only influence the past but control it: a case where our actions in (...) the present are reliably correlated with several events in the present and past. To deal with such cases, we need to appeal to epistemic conditions on deliberation: being agents requires our decisions being epistemically undetermined at the time we make them. In a world with the past-hypothesis, this implies that deliberation will typically come prior to decision. Once deliberation in this direction is established, correlations towards the past cannot then be exploited for control. To explain why we cannot effectively control the past, we need to appeal to deliberation, whether as part of a defence of Albert's account, or used independently to explain the asymmetry of control. (shrink)

Several authors have hailed intuition as one of the defining features of expertise. In particular, while disagreeing on almost anything that touches on human cognition and artificial intelligence, Hubert Dreyfus and Herbert Simon agreed on this point. However, the highly influential theories of intuition they proposed differed in major ways, especially with respect to the role given to search and as to whether intuition is holistic or analytic. Both theories suffer from empirical weaknesses. In this paper, we show how, with (...) some additions, a recent theory of expert memory (the template theory) offers a coherent and wide-ranging explanation of intuition in expert behaviour. It is shown that the theory accounts for the key features of intuition: it explains the rapid onset of intuition and its perceptual nature, provides mechanisms for learning, incorporates processes showing how perception is linked to action and emotion, and how experts capture the entirety of a situation. In doing so, the new theory addresses the issues problematic for Dreyfus’s and Simon’s theories. Implications for research and practice are discussed. (shrink)

This is not merely a theoretical problem, as Fernandes relates it to the very current crisis of nativist/multicultural identity in the West.

Debating on Second Language Acquisition is not merely in terms of concept but also the real phenomena which postulate each research result. It needs more investigation on SLA due to the various realities on how children and adults acquire and learn any language. This research aims to describe how children and adults acquire and learn their first and second language. Participants consisted of children and adults whose ages determined by the researcher based on the purposive sampling technique. They were all (...) six persons and chosen based on certain characteristics. Content analysis technique was applied in order to analyze all data gained. The result showed that since human alive inside mother’s womb especially at up to the age of three months, a fetus has tried to acquire sounds subconsciously. Language proficiency is really determined by three factors of Phased Process Approach namely Subconscious Acquisition, Conscious Acquisition, and Learning. The ideal time for learning something is begun from the age of 2 or 3 years old, by the fact that children have had the ability to bear a meaning on any input that they catch. The learning process has been begun within the process of acquisition. Based on the findings, it is clear that the children acquire the language step by step based on the development of the brain. Children acquire language is just the same as adult in acquiring the language although there will be some constraints faced by adult concern with the first language because adult has had the strong basis of the first language just than children. (shrink)

Este trabalho pretende entender como John Searle compreende a mente enquanto propriedade do cérebro. A partir da obra A Redescoberta da mente, consideramos, em primeiro lugar, alguns sentidos que parecem caracterizar a investigação de Searle em vista de um redescobrimento da mente. Ora, são visíveis na obra dois sentidos entrelaçados: o científico e o filosófico. Por sentido científico, poder-se-ia denominar esse que aparece desde a introdução e se estende por toda a obra, pois visa estabelecer um estatuto biológico da mente. (...) Já o sentido filosófico é aquele que propõe não reduzir a esfera do mental ao olhar objetivo do mundo, o que configura, talvez, sua postura filosófica, sobretudo quando diz que pretende “não decretar ou predizer o futuro da pesquisa, seja em filosofia, ciência ou outras disciplinas”.2 Essas são as razões pelas quais seria necessário caracterizar este sentido como pesquisa, que num aspecto forte pode ser denominado de procura pelo estatuto da mente. O sentido científico, em contraponto, é o fim último da pesquisa, que significa encontrar a solução adequada para o problema sobre a mente, ou, pelo menos, dar um passo correto para a solução; tornando o caminho plano para o redescobrimento da mente. Além disso, estudamos em Searle em que medida a mente exerce relações com o cérebro, e, nessa perspectiva, como seria possível redescobri-la nas interações biológicas com o corpo. (shrink)

Este artigo apresenta o resultado de uma pesquisa desenvolvida no Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ensino de História da Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (ProfHistória/UFU). Nos limites do texto o objetivo consistiu em apresentar o processo que culminou na elaboração do Curso intitulado “Por uma educação antirracista: o estudo da história da África, cultura afro-brasileira e relações étnico-raciais” produzido como resultado da pesquisa desenvolvida no mestrado profissional, tendo como base e público alvo estudantes jovens e adultos. O estudo está fundamentado em uma (...) pesquisa qualitativa, com revisão bibliográfica em livros e artigos acadêmicos tendo como principais referências autores que realizaram estudos sobre Educação de Jovens e adultos (EJA) e Educação e relações étnico-raciais. Analisamos documentos que regularizam a educação brasileira e as leis antirracistas dedicando atenção especial à Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação (LDB) 9.394/96 e à Lei 10.639/03, alterada posteriormente pela Lei 11.645/08 que estabelece a obrigatoriedade da temática História e cultura afro-brasileira e indígena. Recorreu também a um questionário diagnóstico aplicado aos jovens e adultos estudantes do Centro Estadual de Educação Continuada (CESEC Uberlândia). Conclui-se que para efetivar uma educação antirracista, o ensino de História da África e Cultura Afro-Brasileira não pode se limitar a ações pontuais. É necessário descolonizar os currículos. (shrink)