_Background:_ Cognitive biases play an important role in the formation and maintenance of delusions. These biases are indicators of a weak reflective mind, or reduced engaging in reflective and deliberate reasoning. In three experiments, we tested whether a bias to accept non-sense statements as profound, treat metaphorical statements as literal, and suppress intuitive responses is related to psychotic-like experiences. _Methods:_ We tested deliberate reasoning and psychotic-like experiences in the general population and in patients with a former psychotic episode. Deliberate reasoning (...) was assessed with the bullshit receptivity scale, the ontological confabulation scale and the cognitive reflection test (CRT). We also measured algorithmic performance with the Berlin numeracy test and the wordsum test. Psychotic-like experiences were measured with the Community Assessment of Psychic Experience (CAPE-42) scale. _Results:_ Psychotic-like experiences were positively correlated with a larger receptivity toward bullshit, more ontological confabulations, and also a lower score on the CRT but not with algorithmic task performance. In the patient group higher psychotic-like experiences significantly correlated with higher bullshit receptivity. _Conclusion:_ Reduced deliberate reasoning may contribute to the formation of delusions, and be a general thinking bias largely independent of a person's general intelligence. Acceptance of bullshit may be facilitated the more positive symptoms a patient has, contributing to the maintenance of the delusions. (shrink)

İnsanı diğer varlıklardan ayıran en önemli özelliği bilinç (akıl) sahibi ve seçme hürriyetine sahip olmasıdır. İnsanlık tarihi boyunca insanın hürriyeti, bu hürriyetin sınırları, mahiyeti sorgulana gelmiştir. İnsan özgürlüğü konusunda genellikle iki çeşit yaklaşım söz konusudur: Bunlardan birincisi filozofların getirmiş oldukları yaklaşım diğeri ise dinlerin getirmiş oldukları yaklaşımdır. Hürriyet kavramı katı bir tarif/tanımlama kalıbına kolayca sığabilen bir kavram değildir. Mantıkçıların “ağyârını mâni‘ efrâdını câmi‘” diye nitelendirdikleri tam ve tümel bir tanım yapılamamıştır. Dolayısıyla filozoflar, bilginler kendi çağlarının düşünce ortamına, entelektüel birikime göre (...) hürriyet kavramını temellendirmeye çalışmışlardır. Yukarıda da ifade edildiği gibi hürriyet meselesi çözümü zor bir konudur. Bu nedenden dolayı bu çalışmamızda öncelikle hürriyet kavramının etimolojik tahlilini, tanımını yaptıktan sonra Mâtürîdî kelâm düşünürlerinin hürriyet problemine yaklaşım tarzları, çözüm önerileri ve tanımlama biçimleri değerlendirilmeye çalışılacaktır. Mâtürîdî kelâm düşünürleri derken kastımız spesifik anlamda İmam Mâtürîdî ve onun en güçlü takipçisi olan Ebü’l-Muîn en-Nesefî’nin çözüm şekilleri üzerinde durulacaktır. (shrink)

Without doubt, there is a great diversity of scientific images both with regard to their appearances and their functions. Diagrams, photographs, drawings, etc. serve as evidence in publications, as eye-catchers in presentations, as surrogates for the research object in scientific reasoning. This fact has been highlighted by Stephen M. Downes who takes this diversity as a reason to argue against a unifying representation-based account of how visualisations play their epistemic role in science. In the following paper, I will suggest an (...) alternative explanation of the diversity of scientific images. This account refers to processes which are caused by the social setting of science. What exactly is meant by this, I will spell out with the aid of Ludwik Fleck’s theory of the social mechanisms of scientific communication. (shrink)

Öz (150-250 kelVAHİY ve İLHAM BAĞLAMINDA HANEFÎ-MÂTÜRÎDÎ KELÂM SİSTEMİNİN TASAVVUFLA İLİŞKİSİ Özet Modern zamanlarda Hanefî-Mâtürîdî kelâm sistemi ilham konusundaki ihtiyatlı tavrından dolayı genellikle tasavvuf karşıtı ya da tasavvufa karşı mesafeli olarak algılanmıştır. Ancak gerek Mâtürîdî gerekse Hanefî-Mâtürîdî kelâmcıları eserlerinde ilham konusunu geniş bir anlam yelpazesinde sunarak, ilhamın varlığını kabul etmişlerdir. Bununla birlikte ilhamı objektif bir bilgi kaynağı olarak kabul etmemişlerdir. Ancak Mâverâünnehir coğrafyasında etkili olan sûfîlerin de Hanefî-Mâtürîdî kelâmcılarının ilhamın bağlayıcılığı ve objektif bilgi kaynağı olmadığı yönündeki düşüncelerine paralel bir anlayış (...) içerisinde oldukları görülmektedir. Ayrıca Hanefî-Mâtürîdî kelâm sisteminin ilham konusundaki eleştirilerinin asıl hedefinin tasavvuf ve sûfîler olmadığı anlaşılmaktadır. Tasavvuf içinde onların eleştirilerini haklı çıkaracak şekilde bir düşünce içine giren bazı sûfîler olsa da, bu eleştirilerin hedefinin Şiî-Bâtınî fırkalar olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Bu makalede başta Mâtürîdî olmak üzere Hanefî-Mâtürîdî kelamcılarının ilham kavramına yükledikleri anlam ve ilhamın bilgi değeri, vahiyle irtibatlı bir şekilde incelenecektir. Bununla birlikte Hanefî-Mâtürîdî kültür havzasında varlık gösteren sûfîler ile Şiî-Bâtınî akımların konuyla ilgili değerlendirmelerine yer verilmek suretiyle Hanefî-Mâtürîdî kelamcılarının ilham konusundaki tavırlarının sebepleri incelenecektir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Hanefî-Mâtürîdî, vahiy, ilham, tasavvuf. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HANAFĪ- MĀTURĪDĪ KALAM SYSTEM AND SUFISM IN THE CONTEXT OF REVELATION AND INSPIRATION Abstract In modern times, the Hanafī- Māturīdī kalam system was generally perceived as anti-Sufi or distant from Sufism because of its cautious attitude towards inspiration. However, both Māturīdī and Hanafī-Māturīdī theorists have accepted the existence of inspiration by presenting the subject of inspiration in a wide range of meanings in their works. However, they did not accept inspiration as an objective source of information. However, Sufis who are influential in the geography of Maveraunnehir also have a parallel understanding of the Hanafī-Māturīdī theorists thought that inspiration is not a binding and objective source of information. It is also understood that the main target of the criticism of the Hanafī- Māturīdī kalam system on inspiration was not Sufism and Sufis. While there are some Sufis in Sufism who fall into a way of justifying their criticism, it is understood that the target of these criticisms are the Shiite-Bātınī groups. In this article, the meaning and the value of knowledge that the Hanafī-Māturīdī theorists, especially Māturīdī, have uploaded to the concept of inspiration, will be examined in a way that is connected with revelation. However, the reasons of the attitude of Hanafī-Māturīdī theorists towards inspiration will be examined by evaluating the Sufis and Shiite-Bātınī groups that exist in the Hanafī-Māturīdī culture geography. Keywords: Hanafī-Māturīdī, revelation, inspiration, Sufism. ime) ve yukarıdaki kutucuğa anahtar kelimeler (5-7 kelime)İngilizce öz ve anahtar kelimeler de aynı sınırlar çerçevesinde yazılmalıdır. (shrink)

İslâm düşünce tarihine dair yazılanlar, çoğu zaman tarihsel ve toplumsal gerçekliklerden ziyade, tarihin bize aktardıkları yanlı ve yanıltıcı bilgiler üzerinden şekillenmektedir. Doğal olarak tarihsel ve toplumsal gerçekliklerle birlikte sosyolojinin ve hatta iktisadın genel geçer kuralları dikkate alınmaksızın yapılan değerlendirmeler, ilmî olmaktan uzak olduğu için doğru bir sonuç ve ona uygun bir etki de yaratamamıştır. Özellikle inanç formuna büründürülerek mezheplerin düşüncelerini değerlendiren yaklaşımlar, mensubu olduğu ve zaman zaman da ötekileştirdiği diğer mezhep mensuplarının düşüncelerini doğru bir şekilde anlama yerine, onu reddetmek üzere (...) ve yanlışlamak amacıyla okumaktadır. Eş‘arî sonrası ve Eş‘arîlik sistemi içinde biçimlenmiş kelâmî yaklaşım, Mu‘tezile’ye reddiye olarak ifade edilebilecek bir temelde konumlanmıştır. Doğal olarak olgudan ziyade, Ehl-i hadîs olarak nitelendirilebilecek ve bütün sorunların cevaplarının, tarihin belli bir dönemine ait değerlendirmeler üzerinden bulmaya çalışan bir yapı biçiminde şekillenmiştir. Dinamik olan toplumun, her döneme ait sorunlarının da dinamik bir yapı oluşturduğu muhakkaktır. Kelâm ilminin teşekkül sürecine bakıldığında toplumsal sorunları göz önünde bulunduran ve çözüm önerilerini bu minvalde üreten bir bakış mevcuttur. Uzun süre varlığını böyle devam ettiren kelâm ilmi, tarihsel süreç içerisinde neredeyse tamamen teoriye sıkışan bir disiplin haline gelmiştir. Modern dönem ile birlikte yeni sorunlar, yeni tartışma alanları hâsıl olmuş ve yeni bir bilgi yöntemi ve metodu ile tartışmalar yapılmıştır. Kelâm ilminin de yeniden asli hüviyetine kavuşabilmesi adına yeni bir yöntem ve metodun geliştirilmesi gerekliliği dile getirilmiş ve Yeni ilm-i kelâm, sosyal kelâm gibi kavramlar ortaya atılmıştır. İlk çıkış sürecinde kelâmın hayat ile iç içe olduğu, sosyal ve siyasal olana göre şekillendiği, çözümlerin de toplumun gerçekliği göz önünde bulundurularak üretildiğini söyleyebiliriz. Bu anlamda her ne kadar isimlendirme bu şekilde olmasa da uygulamanın sosyal kelâma denk gelecek biçimde olduğunu ifade edebiliriz. Vâsıl b. Atâ özelinde Mu‘tezile’nin temel beş temel ilkesinin aslında sosyal kelâm olarak nitelenebilecek bir perspektifle oluşturulduğunu göstermeyi hedefledik. (shrink)

One of the important aspects of the classical kalām is that the philosophical topics related to physics and cosmology, namely daqīq or laṭīf al-kalām, have an important place in it. The reason for the involvement of the kalām scholars (mutakallimūn) in these kinds of issues is commonly regarded as an effort to defend Islamic beliefs against other religions and thought systems. However, when their studies are examined closely, the complexity of their concepts and theories, as well as the fact that (...) they discussed these matters not only with opposing groups but also among themselves, show that kalām had a much deeper and integrated relationship with science and philosophy in the classical period. Their engagement with philosophical and scientific matters, such body (jism), substance/atom (jawhar), accident (ʿaraḍ), motion, space, time, and causality dates back to the mid-8th century and displays great diversity. Although the mutakallimūn probably were the first ones to deal with physics-related issues in Islamic thought, it cannot be said that they are given the importance they deserve in modern studies pertaining to the history of science and philosophy in Islamic thought. The fact that, in kalām works, physics-related questions were generally discussed along with theological matters has caused the scholarship of mutakallimūn to be regarded as an adjunct of apologetic discipline and has thereby led to a limited description of kalām’s relationship with science and philosophy in the classical period. This set of circumstances hinders a proper understanding of how science and philosophy emerged and evolved in Islamic thought. In the present article, I will attempt to present the place and role of physical topics, namely daqīq or laṭīf al-kalām, in classical kalām, between the 9th and 11th centuries. Firstly, I will show how the classical mutakallimūn divided kalām into two parts, namely ‘major’ (jalīl) matters, which are based on revelation, and ‘subtle’ (daqīq) or ‘obscure’ (laṭīf) matters, which mainly depend on reason. Matters surrounding jalīl al-kalām indicate the theological problems on which the mutakallimūn had a general agreement, such as God’s oneness, revelation, prophethood, and eschatology. Questions discussed under the category of daqīq or laṭīf al-kalām mostly correspond to philosophical and scientific issues concerning epistemology, physics, and cosmology. Secondly, I will examine to what extent the mutakallimūn dealt with physical sciences and what kind of topics were primarily discussed in the field of daqīq or laṭīf al-kalām. The upshot of this will be that the claim that the mutakallimūn were interested in physics and cosmology merely for apologetic purposes is unsound; rather, in the 9th and 10th centuries, many Muslim theologians also concerned themselves with issues such as motion, void, body, and causality as truth seekers. That being the case, the mutakallimūn should be taken into consideration in studies related to the emergence and rise of science and philosophy in Islamic thought. (shrink)

: Muḥammad ibn Yūsuf al-Sanūsī, who was one of the theologian of later Muslim Asʿharī theologians, is one of the scholar came to the fore in Maghrib. Although al-Sanūsī shapes his thoughts within the Asʿharī’s kalam system, he presents new contributions to this system with his own unique perspective. In particular, his effort to give importance to reason in maʿrifat Allāh is remarkable. According to him, maʿrifat Allāh can only be reached with reflection. Also the reflection is waʿẓ or contexture (...) process done in the reason. When a method is followed, such an reflection leads to the maʿrifatullāh. In particular, the ruling wisdom adds a form to the functioning of the reason through its perceived and compassionate perceptions. For a believer to know the necessary, the permissible and the impossible is to use the reason. In this context al-Sanūsī imposes a central role in the concept of judgment. If the human can operates its reason in this way, necessarily will comprehend that he/she is created. In the process of acquiring the knowledge, al-Sanūsī draws attention to the heart as much as the reason and that shows that he is in the effort of combining these two. Summary: Muḥammad ibn Yūsuf al-Sanūsī is a scholar raised at the Maghreb geography. Although al-Sanūsī, living in the 9th/15th century, gave a lot of work in different fields, his theologian identity became front-line. By standing against the innovation that he had seen during his era, he wrote many beliefs works. Among these works, the relation of maʿrifat Allāh-reason attracts attention. al-Sanūsī thinks that the most important means of delivering to maʿrifat Allāh is deduciton. According to him, the deduction is “to reveal the known to reach the desired thing or to arrange two or more works”. If we evaluate this definition in terms of Asʿharī tradition, we will see that al-Sanūsī is in the effort to emending the definition of his al-Qāḍī al-Bayḍāwī’s definition who is his contemporary. al-Bayḍāwī described deduction as ‘to organize things that are not known to be known’. al-Sanūsī made a contribution to this recognition. He has adopted the arrange part completely and also add the waʿẓ expression into that. The reason why al-Sanūsī goes to such a separation is the reason for trying to explain the functioning of the reason in a logical form. In the logical sense, the thought consists of envision and confirmation. From these concepts that constitute thought, envision refers to waʿẓ, and confirmation refers to arrange. If the definition of al-Bayḍāwī is accepted as valid, the envision in reason is incomplete. This shows the importance that al-Sanūsī gives to the functioning of the reason in terms of the achievement of the maʿrifat Allāh. The confirmation made without envision can lead a person to imitation. Therefore, the deduction made by waʿẓ must be taken into account. It can be imagined groundlessly that in the definition of deduciton which al-Sanūsī made, he had an understanding of reason that doesn’t base on Allah. However, al-Sanūsī has never broken the Asʿharī tradition in this matter. According to al-Sanūsī, both the deduction and the knowledge formed as a result of this, is Allah’s creation without means. There is no influence of deduction on knowledge and also the knowledge on deduction. Also, the human has no influence neither in inference nor knowledge. It seems to be contradictory to the definition of such a discourse. However, he made his interpretations within the framework of the understanding of the omnipotence that the Asʿharites had drawn. It is unthinkable that Allah, who created everything and even man’s actions, can’t be imagine that doesn’t create thought. Intellect produces knowledge, but Allah creates both intellect and the knowledge produced by intellect. al-Sanūsī, while describing deduction, said that it could be produced with waʿẓ in the sense of envision. However, there is another very important concept that creates a conception from his point of view, which is “judgment”. According to him, judgment is “the proof or negation of something”. The phrases “the universe is created” or “Allah is not created” are the examples of a proof or negation of an issue. See, this is a judgment. In this sense, envision is a road to judgment. That is, the information obtained by envision reaches a judgment in the forms of the reason. al-Sanūsī classify the judgment in to three: lawful, ordinary, intellectual. The lawful judgment is the salutation of Allah with the demand related to the actions of the amenable, not being good deed or sin or waʿẓ. Ordinary judgment is the link between the existence or absence of a state and the existence or absence of another state. The most important of these three judgments is the intellectual judgment. As for the intellectual judgment, it is the proof or the negation of a work without waʿẓ and repetition. It is separated from lawful judgment without being waʿẓ and separated from ordinary judgment with being not repeated. In this sense, if the mind needs the examination or repetition while deciding for a work’s certainty or negation, this kind of a judgment is not lawful or ordinary but it is intellectual judgment. The reason judges either a work’s certainty or absence together, or accepts only the certainty or accepts the negation. According to al-Sanūsī, having the right to comment on belief is pertain to intellectual judgment in the first place. al-Sanūsī takes the maʿrifat Allāh to the center in matters related to the place of reason and examines the relation of the maʿrifat Allāh with these three concepts. What al-Sanūsī tends in doing so is that to show that there is an inherent meaning of reason as well as having relevance of knowing some things. As a result, according to al-Sanūsī, knowing these three parts of the intellectual judgment is the reason itself. Anybody who does not know these, is the person without reason. al-Sanūsī thinks that it is necessary for the amenable to know the intellectual judgments and its parts. This necessity is to make the amenable separate the things about Allah or his prophets related to necessity, permissible and impossible attributes; but also, the things exist within the limits of intellectual judgment or not. The amenable who know these has evidence and thereby can defeat the doubts that may have formed or may will form in him. al-Sanūsī also emphasizes the deduction of reason to reach the maʿrifat Allāh with reason. According to him, it is the best deduction method in terms of the evidence that Allah exists is that the deduction from causing agent to cause and the deduction from one correlative to another The acceptance of the possible entity has agent who wills its existence, oppose to the Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī, that this proposition is whether imperative or not. According to him, these propositions are not imperative, they need deduction. In this respect, deduction is necessary for the maʿrifat Allāh. The reason which is considered in the sense of logic in al-Sanūsī is not a structure which merely functions as a analogy and a deduction. On the contrary, according to al-Sanūsī, there is a direction going towards the heart from the point of reason and it seems that the heart is used in meaning of reason. This is an example of al-Sanūsī’s attempt to combine mystical knowledge with reason and legal injunction. This is a remediation project in terms of his time. (shrink)

Klasik Sünnî kelâmın sıfatların ‘ne Tanrı’nın aynı ne de Tanrı'dan ayrı' olduğunu iddia eden ilâhî sıfatlar teorisi, üçüncü halin imkansızlığı yasasının inkarı anlamına gelecek şekilde yorumlanmıştır. Nitekim bu iddiada olan yazarlar, böyle bir teoriyi dışarıda bırakacak şekilde yeni bir kelâm inşa etme iddiasındadır. Yazar, böyle bir iddiayı kendinde anlamsız görmekle birlikte, klasik kelâm nazariyesinde de bir temeli olmadığını iddia etmektedir. Bu makale, ‘gayr’ın anlamı hakkında ayrıntılı bir inceleme sunmakta ve birçok metinsel kanıtla, klasik ilâhî sıfatlar teorisinin yalnızca özdeşliğin ve ilâhî (...) zâttan ayrılabilirliğin inkarı anlamına geldiğini öne sürmektedir. Bu makale, gayr teriminin metafizik, teoloji ve doğa felsefesi bağlamlarında da geçerli olduğunu göstermektedir. “Bir şey bir diğerinin ne aynı ne de ayrıdır” formülü, bir öznenin kendisinden zorunlu ve ayrılmaz olan herhangi bir özelliğine eşit şekilde uygulanır. Bir diğer ifade ile söz konusu ilke, mümkün varlıklar için de aynı şekilde geçerlidir. Araştırma “gayr” kavramının Arap dilbiliminde aslî olarak olumsuzlama anlamına gelmediğini, aslında bir sıfat olduğunu ve aynı zamanda istisnaî cümle oluşturma işlevi gördüğünü iddia eden dilbilimsel bir tartışmayla başlamaktadır. Bu da ilâhî sıfatlara ilişkin ilkenin, temel dilbilimsel düzeyde bile üçüncü halin imkânsızlığı anlamına gelmediğini kanıtlamaktadır. Akabinde “gayr” kavramı kelâmî n. Söz konusu inceleme kendisini herhangi bir ekolle sınırlı değildir, ancak inceleme dört ana kaynağa dayanmaktadır: (1) Mu'tezileden Ka‘bî'nin Makâlât'ı; (2) Eş‘arî'nin Makâlât'ı ve (3) Mâtürîdî'nin Kitâbu't-Tevhîd ve (4) Te’vîlât. Bazı yazarların Mâtürîdî'nin üçüncü halin imkânsızlığı yasasının inkârını îmâ eden özgün bir duruşa sahip olduğunu iddia etmeleri nedeniyle, sonuncusu üzerinde daha fazla duruldu. Böylesi bir ilkenin mantık yasalarının inkârını îmâ ettiğine dair hiçbir belirti yoktur. Aksini iddia edenler, böyle mantıksız bir görüş için felsefi gerekçelendirme bir yana, yorumları için herhangi bir dilbilimsel veya metinsel kanıt bile sunamamıştır. (shrink)

'Thought insertion' in schizophrenia involves somehow experiencing one's own thoughts as someone else's. Some philosophers try to make sense of this by distinguishing between ownership and agency: one still experiences oneself as the owner of an inserted thought but attributes it to another agency. In this paper, we propose that thought insertion involves experiencing thought contents as alien, rather than episodes of thinking. To make our case, we compare thought insertion to certain experiences of 'verbal hallucination' and show that they (...) amount to different descriptions of the same phenomenon: a quasi-perceptual experience of thought content. We add that the agency/ownership distinction is unhelpful here. What requires explanation is not why a person experiences a type of intentional state without the usual sense of agency, but why she experiences herself as the agent of one type of intentional state rather than another. We conclude by sketching an account of how this might happen. (shrink)

Работа предназначена для ученых и специалистов, преподавателей, аспирантов, слушателей, студентов, а также всех интересующихся рассматриваемой темой.

BACKGROUND: Hallucinations and delusions that complicate Parkinson’s disease could lead to nursing home placement and are linked to increased mortality. Cognitive impairments are typically associated with the presence of hallucinations but there are no data regarding whether such a relationship exists with delusions. OBJECTIVE: We hypothesized that hallucinations would be associated with executive and visuospatial disturbance. An exploratory examination of cognitive correlates of delusions was also completed to address the question of whether they differ from hallucinations. METHODS: 144 PD subjects (...) completed a neuropsychological battery to assess cognition and the SAPS to examine psychosis. Correlational analyses assessed associations between hallucinations and delusions with cognitive domains. RESULTS: 48 subjects reported psychotic symptoms: 25 experienced hallucinations without delusions, 23 had symptoms dominated by delusions. Severity and/or number of hallucination subtypes were significantly correlated with lower scores in language, memory, attention, executive functioning, and visuospatial ability. Correlations with delusions were non-significant. Tests of differences in the size of the correlations between groups revealed a significant relationship between language and visuospatial performance with hallucinations. CONCLUSIONS: Cognitive correlates of hallucinations and delusions appear to be different in PD, suggesting distinct pathogenic mechanisms and possibly anatomical substrates. Hence, delusions may not share the same associations with dementia as hallucinations. Since this is a new finding, further studies will be needed to confirm our results. (shrink)

Zihnî varlık problemi ontolojik ve epistemolojik yönleriyle birçok konuyla ilişkili olan çok boyutlu bir meseledir. Hem filozoflar hem de kelâmcılar problemi farklı yönleriyle ele almışlar ve aralarında tartışmışlardır. Bu tartışmalar kabul ve ret sadedinde zihnî varlıkla ilgili birtakım delillerin ve eleştirilerin ortaya çıkmasını sağlamıştır. Farklı konularla da ilişkilendirilen bu tartışmalar içerisinde özellikle ma‘dûmlara ilişkin bilginin zihnî varlığın ispatında kullanılması aynı zamanda ma‘dûma dair bilginin yerini tespit etmeye imkân vermiştir. Zira ma‘dûmun bilgiye konu olması bazı istisnalar hariç tutulacak olursa genel olarak (...) kelâmcılar tarafından ittifak edilen bir husustur. Özellikle kelamın konusunun bilinenlere hasredilmesiyle beraber gelen süreç içerisinde mümkün olsun mümteni‘ olsun ma‘dûmların bilinebileceği âlimler tarafından kabul edilen bir husustur. Dolayısıyla ona dair bilginin nerede yer aldığı meselesi zihnî varlık tartışmalarının bir uzantısı olarak ortaya çıkmış olmaktadır. Bu bağlamda hem kelâmcılar hem de filozoflar benimsedikleri bilgi teorileri açısından ma‘dûm gibi nesnel dünyada olmayan ancak akledilebilen ya da hakkında yargıda bulunabilen veyahut tasavvur edilebilen bu kavramlara dair bilginin epistemolojik ve ontolojik olarak nerede olduğunu sorgulamışlar ve bu bilginin yerini belirlemeye çalışmışlardır. Bu çaba neticesinde ma‘dûmla ilgili bilginin yerinin zihin ve hâriç olmak üzere iki şekilde açıklandığı görülmüştür. Nesnel bir karşılığının olmaması sebebiyle ma‘dûmla ilgili bilgilerin yerinin zihin olduğunu iddia eden kelâmcılara karşılık olarak bu bilginin yerinin zihin değil dış dünya olduğu iddia edilmiştir. Onunla ilgili bilginin hâriçte olduğunu iddia edenler arasında da bir ittifak sağlanamamış, kimisi bu bilginin Eflâtûn’un idelerinde kimisi de faal akılda olduğunu iddia etmiştir. Ma‘dûma dair bilginin yerini zihne bağlayanlar arasında ise herhangi bir ihtilaf yaşanmamıştır. Buradan hareketle bu çalışmada esasen zihnî varlığın ispatı için ileri sürülen deliller ve bu delillere yönelik eleştirilerden yola çıkarak ma‘dûma dair bilginin yeri müteahhir dönem kelâmı açısından tespit edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Bu tartışmalar çerçevesinde taraflar belirtilerek muhaliflerin birbirlerine yönelik eleştirilerine de yer verilmiştir. Çünkü bu eleştirilerin mahiyeti, karşıt görüşte olanların ma‘dûma dair bilginin yeri hakkındaki düşüncelerini ortaya koyma açısından önem arz etmektedir. Çalışmanın kapsamı, zihnî varlığa dair tartışmaların müstakil bir başlık olarak Fahreddîn er-Râzî tarafından ortaya konulmasından hareketle Râzî ve sonrası bazı müteahhir dönem kelâmcıları ile sınırlandırılmıştır. Buna binaen çalışmada müteahhir dönem içerisinde söz konusu meseleye yer veren temsil gücü yüksek ve şöhret bulmuş temel kelâm metinleri ve bu temel metinlere yazılan öne çıkmış şerhler tercih edilmiştir. (shrink)

Bu makalede Erken dönem Eş‘ariyye’de dakîku’l-kelâm konusu izah edilmeye çalışılacaktır. Kelâm ilminin sistematik hale gelişinden itibaren konuları genellikle dakîku’l-kelâm ve celîlu’l-kelâm şeklinde ikili bir tasnifle ele alınmıştır. Dakîku’l-kelâm, konusu itibariyle âlem, âlemin unsurları, cevher, araz, cisim gibi fizik alanına tekabül ederken celîlu’l-kelâm ise uluhiyyet, nübüvvet ve sem’iyyât ile ilişkili olan metafizik alana tekabül etmektedir. Hicrî dördüncü asırda teşekkül eden Eş‘arî kelâm okulu varlık konusu başta olmak üzere fizik ve metafizik konuları sistematik bir şekilde ele almıştır. Erken dönem Eş‘arî kelâmında kelâm (...) ilminin fizik alanına tekabül eden dakîku’l-kelâm konularına epeyce yer verilmiştir. Bu çalışmada amacımız erken dönem Eş‘ariyye’nin Allah-âlem ilişkisi, âlemin hudûsu ve unsurları, cisim, cevher ve araz gibi meseleleri içeren dakîku’l-kelâm anlayışını sunmaktır. Allah-âlem ilişkisini ele almada daha önceleri Mu‘tezile tarafından kullanılan kelâm atomculuğunun Eş‘arî kelâmında da benimsenip benimsenmediğine değinilecektir. Aynı şekilde Âlemin işleyişinde bir zorunluluğun olup olmadığı meselesini konu edinen illiyet/nedensellik tartışmaları da ele alınacaktır. Bu çalışmanın erken dönem Eş‘arî kelâmının dakîku’l-kelâm alanındaki özgünlüğünü ortaya koymasını ve yeni çalışmalara kapı aralayarak literatüre bir katkı sunmasını umuyoruz. Çalışmada literatür taraması, mukayese ve metin analizi yöntemi kullanılmış olup konu erken dönem Eş‘ariyye ile sınırlandırılmıştır. (shrink)

The patient-doctor relationship has recently come under intense scrutiny, resulting in a re-evaluation of the basis of that relationship. The papers by Glannon and Ross, and McKay seek to identify the sources of authority in the patient-doctor relationship by evaluating it in terms of the concept of altruism. In this paper I argue that the analysis of Glannon and Ross, and of McKay is unnecessary and that the analysis offered by the latter is also flawed. I do acknowledge, however, that (...) Glannon and Ross's description of doctors' responsibilities and patients' roles has much to commend it. (shrink)

Packing optimization problems have a wide spectrum of real-word applications. One of the applications of the problems is problem of placement of containers with spent nuclear fuel on the storage platform. The solution of the problem can be reduced to the solution of the problem of finding the optimal placement of a given set of congruent circles into a multiconnected domain taking into account technological restrictions. A mathematical model of the prob-lem is constructed and its peculiarities are considered. Our approach (...) is based on the mathematical modelling of rela-tions between geometric objects by means of phi-function technique. That allowed us to reduce the problem solving to nonlinear programming. Today, an important scientific problem is the problem of creating conditions for safe storage of spent nuclear fuel. In the process of creating any dry spent nuclear fuel storage, the following main stages can be identified: site selection, storage design, construction, operation and decommissioning. A full check for compliance of the repository and its elements with these standards usually begins at the design stage. At the stage of site selection, the inspection for compliance with safety standards is carried out only in terms of the impact of the repository as a whole on the environment. This approach cannot be considered fully appropriate, because, taking into account, for example, all the climatic features of the future storage site, it is possible to adjust the thermal storage regimes of spent nuclear fuel. Similarly, it can be considered necessary to analyze and select the shape of the storage site in order to accommo-date the maximum possible number of spent fuel containers. Such a choice, obviously, should be made taking into ac-count the norms of nuclear, radiation and thermal safety, as well as in compliance with technological limitations. The problem of finding the optimal placement of containers taking into account the given technological limitations can be formulated in the form of the problem of optimization of geometric design. Therefore, the purpose of the study is to build a mathematical model of the problem and study its characteristics to develop effective methods of solution. The proposed approach is based on mathematical modeling of relations between geometric objects using the method of phi-functions. This allowed to reduce the solution of the problem to the problem of nonlinear programming. (shrink)

Abstract:The present paper focuses on the linkage between two academic paradigms in the enquiry into business ethics: normative philosophy and empirical social sciences. The paper first reviews existing research pertaining to a normative-empirical dialogue. Further empirical data on the relationship between various standards of morality are discussed in relation to the normative frameworks of ethics. Lastly, future directions for such a dialogue in business ethics are suggested.

The community representative plays a very important role in an institutional review board but there is sparse data about their understanding of their role in an IRB. This study was conducted to assess perceptions of community members serving on IRBs of one region in India. A validated questionnaire was administered to community members of IRBs in a prospective cross-sectional study. The questions related to demography, perceptions of their role in the IRB, experiences while serving on the IRBs, difficulties faced by (...) them, and suggestions to improve their contributions. Of the 56 IRBs contacted, all 15 of the public institutions shared details of their community members, while only 26 of the 41 IRBs of private institutions responded. When questioned about why they joined the IRB, one third of the respondents said either that there was “no specific reason” for joining or that they accepted the invitation to serve on the insistence of other members of the IRBs or the head of their institution. All except one felt that community members were needed for optimal functioning. Six participants said that they did not review informed consent documents, and 10 were unaware that their presence was vital for quorum to be met. Twenty-eight said they participated actively in meetings and did not feel intimidated by the presence of clinicians. Twelve reported difficulties in understanding medical terminologies in ICDs. Although the majority of participants were aware about their role in an IRB, some did not review important documents such as ICDs. Restricted participation by private hospital IRBs was a striking observation in our study. There is a need to define eligibility criteria and develop targeted training modules for community members to ensure their effective contribution to effective oversight of clinical research. (shrink)

The attention schema theory explains how a biological, information processing machine can claim to have consciousness, and how, by introspection (by assessing its internal data), it cannot determine that it is a machine whose claims are based on computations. The theory directly addresses Chalmers' meta-problem of consciousness, the problem of why we think we have a difficult-to-explain consciousness in the first place.

Although it is common in liberal and progressive circles to scoff at the idea that the Unites States is “exceptional”—a derision driven by an admirable suspicion of the chauvinistic connotations of the exceptionalist view—doing so obscures a significant reality. The United States is different, or at least rather unusual, in its social, cultural, and geo-strategic circumstances, especially when compared to the nations of Europe from which it draws the core of its intellectual traditions. What's more, the critique of American exceptionalism (...) has acquired its own troublesome politics. “It is extremely dangerous to encourage people to see themselves as exceptional, whatever…. (shrink)