The concept of “revolutionary myth” is the idea of Georges Sorel most influential in the thinking of José Carlos Mariátegui. However, this concept does not work the same way in both authors, mainly because it is applied in each case on markedly different national situations, such as France and Peru in the early twentieth century. For this reason it is important, regardless of the theoretical similarities, expressed as the difference between a general strike myth, linked to European industrial proletariat, and (...) another characterized around the social revolution, linked to the masses of the indigenous peasantry. In both cases we see that such concepts are functional to an extension of the limits of Marxism beyond Stalinism and the III International. (shrink)

I examine an intuitive property of folk-psychological explanations I call self-sufficiency. I argue that individualism cannot honor this property and work toward distilling an account of psychological explanation that does honor it, given some fairly standard assumptions. In doing so, my preference for an Externalist individuation of intentional state will emerge unambiguously. The assumptions I rely on are fairly standard but not uncontroversial. Yet not always do I attempt to defend them from objections. My goal is an account of folk (...) psychology consistent with our every-day practices rather than the deduction of an idealized psychology from first principles. I conclude with some applications offered as evidence that the goal was achieved. (shrink)

The study analyses how the corporate rhetoric of sustainability has developed in Finland during 1985-2005. The dataset consisting of the disclosures of four leading Finnish companies has been analyzed through discourse analytic methods. The findings question whether the ever-increasing popularity of sustainability-related concepts actually means that society is moving forward on the road towards sustainability.

Si bien los textos y cursos que Martin Heidegger dedica a la filosofía de Kant se circunscriben al análisis e interpretación de la Crítica de la razón pura, en este artículo se plantea que a su obra subyacería igualmente una particular lectura de la Crítica del juicio que se aprecia en ensayos como la conferencia de 1935 “El origen de la obra de arte”. La singularidad de esta lectura tendría su fundamento en la asunción, por parte de Heidegger, de la (...) visión que se proyecta en la poesía de Hölderlin sobre la relación entre Grecia y la modernidad. Pues a pesar de la influencia de la Crítica del juicio en la obra poética de Hölderlin, este habría acabado por distanciarse de la posición de Kant en función de la tarea que asigna al poeta moderno en su diferencia y a la vez necesaria vinculación con el decir poético griego. (shrink)

Giorgio Agamben and Ludwig Wittgenstein seem to have very little in common: the former is concerned with traditional ontological issues while the latter was interested in logics and ordinary language, avoiding metaphysical issues as something we cannot speak about. However, both share a crucial notion for their philosophical projects: form of life. In this paper, I try to show that, despite their different approaches and goals, form of life is for both a crucial notion for thinking ethics and life in-common. (...) Addressing human existence in its constitutive relation to language, this notion deconstructs traditional dichotomies like bios and zoé, the cultural and the biological, enabling both authors to think of a life which cannot be separated from its forms, recognizing the commonality of logos as the specific trait of human existence. Through an analogical reading between both theoretical frameworks, I suggest that the notion of form-of-life, elaborated by Wittgenstein to address human production of meaning, becomes the key notion in Agamben's affirmative thinking since it enables us to consider the common ontologically in its relation to Human potentialities and to foresee a new, common use of the world and ourselves. Giorgio Agamben e Ludwig Wittgenstein parecem ter muito pouco em comum: o primeiro se ocupa de questões ontológicas tradicionais, enquanto o segundo estava interessado na Lógica e na linguagem corrente, evitando os problemas metafísicos como algo de que não podemos falar. No entanto, ambos partilham um conceito crucial para seus projetos filosóficos respectivos: forma de vida. Este artigo tento mostrar que, apesar de seus diferentes enfoques e objetivos, a noção de forma de vida é fundamental no momento de pensar a ética e a vida em-comum. Abordando a existência humana em sua relação constitutiva com a língua, essa noção desconstrói dicotomias tradicionais como bios e zoe, o cultural e o biológico, permitindo-lhes pensar uma vida que não pode ser separada de suas formas, e reconhecendo o caráter comum do logos como o traço específico da existência humana. Através de uma leitura analógica entre ambos quadros teóricos, sugiro que a noção de forma-de-vida, elaborada por Wittgenstein para abordar a produção humana de significados, tornase o conceito-chave do pensamento afirmativo de Agamben, já que nos permite considerar o comum ontologicamente em sua relação com as potencialidades humanas e vislumbrar um uso novo e comum do mundo e de nós mesmos. (shrink)

For the last forty years, Hume's Newtonianism has been a debated topic in Hume scholarship. The crux of the matter can be formulated by the following question: Is Hume a Newtonian philosopher? Debates concerning this question have produced two lines of interpretation. I shall call them ‘traditional’ and ‘critical’ interpretations. The traditional interpretation asserts that there are many Newtonian elements in Hume, whereas the critical interpretation seriously questions this. In this article, I consider the main points made by both lines (...) of interpretations and offer further arguments that contribute to this debate. I shall first argue, in favor of the traditional interpretation, that Hume is sympathetic to many prominently Newtonian themes in natural philosophy such as experimentalism, criticality of hypotheses, inductive proof, and criticality of Leibnizian principles of sufficient reason and intelligibility. Second, I shall argue, in accordance with the critical interpretation, that in many cases Hume... (shrink)

Some authors, inspired by the theoretical requirements for the formulation of a quantum theory of gravity, proposed a relational reconstruction of the quantum parameter-time—the time of the unitary evolution, which would make quantum mechanics compatible with relativity. The aim of the present work is to follow the lead of those relational programs by proposing a relational reconstruction of the event-time—which orders the detection of the definite values of the system’s observables. Such a reconstruction will be based on the modal-Hamiltonian interpretation (...) of quantum mechanics, which provides a clear criterion to select which observables acquire a definite value and to specify in what situation they do so. (shrink)

Given the sharp distinction that follows from Hume’s Fork, the proper epistemic status of propositions of mixed mathematics seems to be a mystery. On the one hand, mathematical propositions concern the relation of ideas. They are intuitive and demonstratively certain. On the other hand, propositions of mixed mathematics, such as in Hume’s own example, the law of conservation of momentum, are also matter of fact propositions. They concern causal relations between species of objects, and, in this sense, they are not (...) intuitive or demonstratively certain, but probable or provable. In this article, I argue that the epistemic status of propositions of mixed mathematics is that of matters of fact. I wish to show that their epistemic status is not a mystery. The reason for this is that the propositions of mixed mathematics are dependent on the Uniformity Principle, unlike the propositions of pure mathematics. (shrink)

ABSTRACT Gareth Evans and Sven Rosenkranz have respectively formulated two objections to truth relativism that would show that this view does not cohere with our practice of asserting. I argue that the relativist should answer such objections by appealing to the notion of assessment sensitivity. Since the relativist accounts for this notion by means of a technical truth predicate relating propositions to contexts of assessment, the task left to her turns out to be to make sense of assessment sensitivity by (...) making sense of this predicate. RESUMO Gareth Evans e Sven Rosenkranz formularam, respectivamente, duas objeções ao relativismo da verdade que mostrariam que esta visão não é coerente com nossa prática de afirmar. Defendo que o relativista deve responder a tais objeções apelando à noção de sensibilidade da avaliação. Tendo em mente que o relativista considera essa noção por meio de um predicado de verdade técnica, a tarefa deixada para ele calha de ser dar sentido à sensibilidade da avaliação mediante dar sentido a esse predicado. (shrink)

This book defends a relational theory of the passage of time. The realist view of passage developed in this book differs from the robust, substantivalist position. According to relationism, passage is nothing over and above the succession of events, one thing coming after another. Causally related events are temporally arranged as they happen one after another along observers’ worldlines. There is no unique global passage but a multiplicity of local passages of time. After setting out this positive argument for relationism, (...) the author deals with five common objections to it: (a) triviality of deflationary passage, (b) a-directionality of passage, (c) the impossibility of experiencing passage, (d) fictionalism about passage, and (e) the incompatibility of passage with perduring objects. (shrink)

El presente trabajo analizará una serie de esfuerzos teóricos recientes vinculados a la posible redefinición y aprehensión conceptual de los fenómenos de ideología en las sociedades contemporáneas. El estudio desplegará algunos de los problemas que se presentan al interior de esta clase de esfuerzos conceptuales, enfocando especialmente en el contexto del pensamiento político de raíces postestructurales y lacanianas. Se observará, en suma, el modo en que dichas redefiniciones confrontan con ciertas dificultades o generan tensiones conceptuales debido al tipo de presupuestos (...) epistémicos más vastos desde los que las búsquedas parten. La puesta en relieve y el análisis de algunos de estos problemas constituye el objeto principal del presente estudio. (shrink)

Este trabajo esboza una forma de justificar el principio estructurador central de una teoría veritista de la evaluación epistémica, en respuesta a críticas planteadas por Eleonora Cresto a mi defensa del veritismo frente a una serie de objeciones en el sentido de que no es capaz de explicar la naturaleza y el valor del entendimiento. La primera sección presenta el esbozo de justificación del núcleo de una teoría veritista; la segunda responde a críticas más específicas de Cresto. This paper sketches (...) a way to justify the central tenet of a veritistic theory of epistemic evaluation, in response to problems raised by Eleonora Cresto concerning my defense of veritism, against a series of objetions to the effect that veritistic epistemology is uncapable of explaining the nature and value of understanding. The first section presents the sketch of justification of the nucleus of a veritistic theory, the second responds to some of Cresto's more specific criticisms. (shrink)

The main objective of this paper is to investigate the originality of the kantian treatment of the sublime. We will study the version corresponding to the pre-critical period, in order to point out that even in this period Kant distances himself from the dominant mode of analysis, represented by Edmund Burke’s work. We think that the novelty of the kantian approach lies in the close link established between the sublime and ethics.

El trabajo persigue tres objetivos relacionados. El primero, de corte netamente hermenéutico, es rastrear y reconstruir las razones principales que habrían impulsado a C. S. Nino a rechazar la idea de reproche en su obra teórica. El segundo, de cariz más bien crítico, busca evaluar la credibilidad de estas razones, contraponiéndolas a otras que se estiman más acertadas desde el punto de vista filosófico y que, según se argüirá, habrían comenzado a formularse en la propia teoría del autor. El tercero (...) apunta a desvincular la idea de reproche de algunas connotaciones innecesarias que se le han asociado, para que pueda ocupar un lugar más cómodo en el seno de una teoría jurídica compatible con las premisas de un Estado liberal de derecho. (shrink)

In Ethics in the Conflicts of Modernity, MacIntyre argues that neo-Aristotelians have much to learn from Marx’s economic theory, not only for understanding the nature of capitalism, but also for thinking about alternative social and political institutions. This article outlines the arguments given by MacIntyre for embracing Marxian economic theory and argues that if Marxian economics is a tradition of enquiry, in the MacIntyrean sense of the term, we should take seriously the debates within this tradition in order to conclude (...) whether it has been able to withstand internal and external criticism. I argue that Marxian economic theory, as a tradition of enquiry, has been defeated by its opponents and that a synthesis between Aristotelian moral philosophy and Marxian economics is an obstacle to the development of MacIntyre’s political philosophy. (shrink)

La tradición textual nos ha legado un conjunto de sesenta y cuatro epigramas atribuidos a Luciano de Samósata. La mayoría de los estudios dedicados a los mismos se han enfocado en problemas textuales que obstaculizan la comprensión de los mismos en el conjunto de la obra del samosatense y contribuyen a su consideración como apócrifos o falsamente atribuidos. En este estudio dejamos de lado la discusión acerca de la autenticidad de los mismos y, en cambio, exploramos la posible recepción de (...) ciertos recursos y topoi de la Segunda Sofística en este corpus atribuido a Luciano. (shrink)

El presente trabajo busca identificar y explicar las necesidades metodológicas que llevan a Zambrano a abordar, en su “Carta sobre el exilio”, el tema del exilio desde el género epistolar. Nuestra pregunta se enmarca en las indagaciones que Zambrano hiciera respecto de los géneros literarios, como formas alternativas de acercar pensamiento y vida. Para ello, abordamos el exilio como una de aquellas experiencias que, según Zambrano, se niegan a ser objetivadas por la filosofía sistemática y de las cuales nacen los (...) géneros no sistemáticos. Específicamente, nos detenemos en la particular experiencia que del tiempo se da en el exilio y en las exigencias metodológicas que esta experiencia impone a una escritura que, en la búsqueda de un saber de experiencia, intenta comunicar algo de ella. Desde este análisis mostraremos cómo la “Carta” en tanto género literario, viene a responder a las exigencias que la propia experiencia del exilio le plantea a Zambrano: la necesidad de la construcción de un tiempo común entre exiliados y no-exiliados, que se deriva de la crisis de una comunidad que significó la Guerra Civil; tiempo que permita la comunicación de una memoria histórica como “evidencia” del exilio. (shrink)

Einstein acknowledged that his reading of Hume influenced the development of his special theory of relativity. In this article, I juxtapose Hume’s philosophy with Einstein’s philosophical analysis related to his special relativity. I argue that there are two common points to be found in their writings, namely an empiricist theory of ideas and concepts, and a relationist ontology regarding space and time. The main thesis of this article is that these two points are intertwined in Hume and Einstein.

This article investigates the relationship between Hume’s causal philosophy and Newton ’s philosophy of nature. I claim that Newton ’s experimentalist methodology in gravity research is an important background for understanding Hume’s conception of causality: Hume sees the relation of cause and effect as not being founded on a priori reasoning, similar to the way that Newton criticized non - empirical hypotheses about the properties of gravity. However, according to Hume’s criteria of causal inference, the law of universal gravitation is (...) not a complete causal law, since it does not include a reference either to contiguity or to temporal priority. It is still argued that because of the empirical success of Newton ’s theory—the law is a statement of an exceptionless repetition—Hume gives his support to it in interpreting gravity force instrumentally as if it bore a causal relation to motion. (shrink)

According to a widespread view, Einstein’s definition of time in his special relativity is founded on the positivist verification principle. The present paper challenges this received outlook. It shall be argued that Einstein’s position on the concept of time, to wit, simultaneity, is best understood as a mitigated version of concept empiricism. He contrasts his position to Newton’s absolutist and Kant’s transcendental arguments, and in part sides with Hume’s and Mach’s empiricist arguments. Nevertheless, Einstein worked out a concept empiricism that (...) is considerably more moderate than what we find in the preceding empiricist tradition and early logical positivism. He did not think that the origin of concepts is in observations, but in conventions, and he also maintained a realist ontology of physical events, which he thought is necessary for his theory. Consequently, his philosophy of time in special relativity is not couched in terms of an anti-metaphysical verificationism. (shrink)

In several previous papers we have argued for a global and non-entropic approach to the problem of the arrow of time, according to which the “arrow” is only a metaphorical way of expressing the geometrical time-asymmetry of the universe. We have also shown that, under definite conditions, this global time-asymmetry can be transferred to local contexts as an energy flow that points to the same temporal direction all over the spacetime. The aim of this paper is to complete the global (...) and non-entropic program by showing that our approach is able to account for irreversible local phenomena, which have been traditionally considered as the physical origin of the arrow of time. (shrink)

Con el objetivo de contribuir al diálogo sugerido por Heidegger entre su pensamiento y la obra de Marx, este trabajo pretende poner de manifiesto la confluencia existente entre la interpretación heideggeriana de la modernidad y el análisis llevado a cabo por Marx en El capital del modo de producción capitalista. Para ello se estudia la prevalencia que, desde su perspectiva ontológica, Heidegger otorga a la idea del producir en la época moderna a partir de la transformación del sentido de la (...) poíesis griega y en conexión con la esencia de la técnica, a la vez que se defiende el carácter igualmente ontológico que cabe atribuir a la noción marxiana de mercancía. En atención a la concepción del tiempo uniformizado y homogéneo que subyace a dicha noción, equivalente al establecido en la ciencia moderna, se plantea además la tesis de que la presencia moderna del ente como objeto incondicionalmente producible y calculable descrita por Heidegger coincide con la constitución de las cosas en mercancías como productos del trabajo que revela El capital. (shrink)

Eternalism is the view that the past, the present and the future exist simpliciter. A typical argument in favor of this view leans on the relativity of simultaneity. The ‘equally real with’ relation is assumed to be transitive between spacelike separated events connected by hyperplanes of simultaneity. This reasoning is in tension with the conventionality of simultaneity. Conventionality indicates that, even within a specific frame, simultaneity is based on the choice of the synchronization parameter. Hence the argument for eternalism is (...) compromised. This paper lays out alternative eternalist strategies which do not hinge on hyperplanes. While we lack a rigorous proof for eternalism, there are still cogent reasons to prefer eternalism over presentism. (shrink)

There is a longstanding debate in the stakeholder literature as to who and what really counts as the stakeholders of the firm. Likewise, there have been discussions on whether nature should be considered a stakeholder of the firm. However, one seldom encounters any definitions of the key concepts, that is of nature or the natural environment . We seek to contribute to the debate by taking a closer look at what this thing called nature actually is. In addition, we discuss (...) the implications of this conceptual refinement for the stakeholder model. In order to reinforce the status of the natural environment in the stakeholder model, we propose that any visualisation of a stakeholder network should be embedded in the natural environment. (shrink)

Partiendo del diagnóstico presentado por Guy Debord en La sociedad del espectáculo sobre la negación y falsificación de la vida que tiene lugar en las sociedades del capitalismo tardío, este ensayo pretende analizar algunos aspectos esenciales de la llamada Internacional Situacionista. Para ello, se examina el problema político que los situacionistas advierten en su tiempo histórico, consistente en el conformismo de las clases trabajadoras con las condiciones de trabajo y consumo que impone el capitalismo, así como su pretensión de incitarlas (...) a la acción revolucionaria mediante el proyecto de construcción de situaciones. Una vez expuestos los diferentes aspectos de este proyecto y las deficiencias que se detectan en su teorización, se reflexiona sobre el posible influjo de la Internacional Situacionista en la sociedad de su época desde la valoración de su percepción y expectativas en torno a los acontecimientos de Mayo del 68. (shrink)

La dirección de Nemesio Antúnez entre 1962 y 1964, y las administraciones que le siguieron en el Museo de Arte Contemporáneo (MAC), son un caso ejemplar de las dinámicas político-culturales desarrolladas durante la Guerra Fría. Este artículo analiza esta gestión museal desde la historia intelectual y la historia cultural, trabajando las redes de pensamiento que rodearon a Antúnez y la disquisición entre su programación y la influencia norteamericana en ese momento, atendiendo a cómo el MAC se involucró en la guerra (...) fría cultural. De esta manera se busca aportar al conocimiento de las tramas institucionales que se dieron entre la intelectualidad periférica y los centros metropolitanos durante uno de los periodos claves del siglo XX, presentando ciertos programas expositivos que respondieron al impulso de los EE. UU. de inserción ideológica. (shrink)

Este artículo estudia y def iende el derecho de las niñas y niños al trabajo. Contra el desinformado/interesado “sentido común”, las niñas y niños han trabajado siempre, con normalidad e integrados a la sociedad. El escándalo que hoy produce el trabajo infantil surge hace poco más de un siglo en el mundo minoritario, y no precisamente por una pre- ocupación por el bienestar de niñas y niñas y niños en cuanto tales, sino por la presión del capitalismo y de un (...) creciente y ya hegemónico adultismo, ventilado por la globalización al resto del planeta. La defensa del derecho al trabajo se hace aquí desde la perspectiva de los movimientos sociales de Niñas, Niños y Adolescentes Trabajadores (NNATs), organizados en el mundo mayoritario para luchar por su derecho a un trabajo digno. Es decir, se hace “desde abajo”, considerando lo que signif ica el trabajo para las propias niñas y niños, para sus familias y sus comunidades que, como se mostrará, dista mucho de la concepción hegemónica: el trabajo infantil, nos enseñan los NNATs, puede equivaler a dignidad, a ciudadanía y a emancipación. (shrink)

Eternalism is a metaphysical view regarding the nature of time. It posits the equal existence of all times: the past, the present, and the future. Every event, from the big bang to the heat death of the universe, including our births and deaths, is equally real. -/- Under standard eternalism, temporal locations are somewhat akin to spatial locations. No place is exclusively real. When someone says that they stand ‘here’, it is clear that the term ‘here’ refers to their position. (...) ‘Back’ and ‘front’ exist as well. Eternalists stress that ‘now’ is indexical in a similar way. It is equally real with ‘past’ and ‘future’. Events are classified as past, present, or future from some perspective. -/- Eternalism is contrasted with presentism, which maintains that only present things exist and with the growing block view (also known as possibilism or no-futurism), which holds that past and present things exist but not future ones. The moving spotlight view suggests that all times exist but that the present is the only actual time. This view can be termed eternalist, but it preserves a non-perspectival difference between past, present, and future by treating tense as absolute. Additionally, the moving spotlight view retains some characteristics of presentism by maintaining that the ‘now’ is unique and privileged. -/- Broadly speaking, presentism is a common-sensical view, and so aligns with our manifest image of time. This view is, however, at odds with the scientific image of time. The primary motivation for eternalism arises from orthodox interpretations of the theories of relativity. According to them, simultaneity is relative, not absolute. This implies that there is no universal ‘now’ stretched out across the entire universe. One observer’s present can be another’s past or future. Assuming the universe is four-dimensional spacetime, then all events exist unconditionally. -/- The classical argument for eternalism was devised in the 1960s by Rietdijk in 1966 and Putnam in 1967, with subsequent follow-ups by Maxwell in 1985, Penrose in 1989, and Peterson and Silberstein in 2010. This argument and its ramifications remain the subject of ongoing debate. They shall be further explored in this entry, including their relation to other issues in the metaphysics of time and the philosophy of physics. (shrink)

El presente trabajo reflexiona sobre el pensamiento de la comunidad en Giorgio Agamben y Roberto Esposito. Ambos interrogan lo común desde una perspectiva impolítica que intenta deconstruir los presupuestos de la metafísica y de la filosofía política tradicionales para poder elaborar una conceptualidad afirmativa en clave ontológica. En estos autores predomina el recurso a la figura de la comunidad, situada luego en el horizonte de la biopolítica, ya que la vida deviene el centro hacia el cual apuntarían los dispositivos de (...) poder y las formas de subjetivación política actuales. El trabajo plantea como interrogante si estos abordajes ontológicos logran dar cuenta plenamente de lo común en términos políticos o sólo éticos. (shrink)

Se investiga la metodología estructural deHistoire de la folie à l’ageclassique. Se sos- tiene que Michel Foucault, a partir de los trabajos de George Dumézil, elabora el concepto de experiencia para dar fundamento a las diversas experiencias históricas de la locura. La experiencia epocal, desarrollada en aquel texto, apela a una causalidad estructural que proviene del esquema de la trifuncionalidad ideológica indoeuropea de las obras de Dumézil.

El artículo analiza, desde la historia social con perspectiva de género, un problema nodal del largo conflicto magisterial de 1919 en Mendoza. Se abordan los dispositivos preventivos y reactivos ejercidos durante las tres acciones directas declaradas por Maestros Unidos y las dos huelgas generales pronunciadas por la Federación Obrera Provincial en solidaridad con el sindicato docente. La temprana eclosión de acciones colectivas desplegadas por mujeres, niños, niñas y varones adultos, signó con singular profundidad las posiciones antagónicas asumidas por el Estado. (...) Problemática que nos empuja a establecer un nexo con los estudios que centran la mirada en las respuestas y estrategias elaboradas desde el ámbito estatal y paraestatal para tramitar la cuestión social y obrera. A partir de la conjunción de ambos nudos historiográficos, reparamos sobre las formas de represión y las prácticas de sujeción efectivamente desplegadas durante el extenso conflicto. Abordamos la conformación de la Liga Patriótica Argentina seccional Mendoza, los vínculos establecidos con funcionarios e instituciones estatales y la estrategia ofensiva en su búsqueda por restituir el orden institucional educativo y los sentidos tradicionales de domesticidad que pesaban sobre mujeres e infancias. Por último, nos focalizamos en la implementación progresiva de dispositivos específicos de marcación negativa y hostigamiento que se ejercitaron de modo generizado sobre las maestras sindicalizadas y sus aliados, y que culminaron en abierta represión estatal –legal e ilegal- durante los momentos más confrontativos de huelga general. (shrink)

Este artículo se centra en la interpretación del concepto de facticidad en los cursos impartidos por Heidegger entre 1921 y 1923. La facticidad será allí entendida en términos de cierto dinamismo, al tiempo que vacilantemente asimilada al “sentido del ser” del ente que somos. En relación a ello, trataremos de mostrar cómo en el problema al que esta noción apunta cabe ya reconocer la cuestión por el sentido del ser en general planteada en Ser y tiempo.

Reseña de: Scaglia, L., Kant’s Notion of a Transcendental Schema. The Constitution of Objective Cognition between Epistemology and Psychology, Berlin/ Bern/ Bruxelles/ New York/ Oxford/ Warszawa/ Wien, Peter Lang, 2020, 294 páginas. ISBN: 978-3- 631-80438-4.